<p>The Punta Marguareis  or Pointe Marguareis  is a mountain in the Ligurian Alps, on the boundary between Italy and France; It is the highest peak of the Ligurian Alps.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>Administratively the Marguareis is divided between the Italian region of Piemonte (province: Cuneo) and the French region of Provence-Alpes-Côte d&#39;Azur (department: Alpes-Maritimes).</p><br>
<h3>SOIUSA classification</h3><br>
<p>According to the SOIUSA (International Standardized Mountain Subdivision of the Alps) the mountain can be classified in the following way:</p><br>
<p>main part=Western Alps</p><br>
<p>major sector=South Western Alps</p><br>
<p>section=Ligurian Alps</p><br>
<p>subsection=(It:Alpi del Marguareis/Fr:Alpes Liguriennes Occidentales)</p><br>
<p>supergroup=(It:Catena Marguareis-Mongioie/Fr:Chaîne Marguareis-Mongioie)</p><br>
<p>group=(It:Gruppo del Marguareis/Fr:Groupe du Marguareis)</p><br>
<p>subgroup=(It:Nodo del Marguareis/Fr:Nœud du Marguareis)</p><br>
<p>code=I/A-1.II-B.2.a</p><br>
<h2>Geology</h2><br>
<p>The Marguareis is part of a karst area where are located many caves very popular among speleologists.</p><br>
<p>The Hostetter Inn is a historic lodging facility located outside the village of Lisbon, Ohio, United States. Constructed in the early 1830s, it has been designated a historic site.</p><br>
<p>The inn is a brick building set on a foundation of limestone; an asphalt roof covers the building, and additional elements of wood are also present. It is a simple structure without a standard architectural style.</p><br>
<p>Built in 1832, the Hostetter Inn takes its name from the original owners, a family named Hostetter, who were the proprietors until after the turn of the twentieth century. Throughout its history, the inn has experienced remarkably few changes; aside from miniature modifications on the exterior, nothing of the buildings appearance has changed since its construction. As a result, and because most of the areas old houses have experienced major modifications, the old inn has become a highly significant part of the local built environment. Accordingly, in 1980, the inn was listed on the National Register of Historic Places; it qualified both because of its architecture and its place in local history, being deemed important as a major part of the commercial life of Hanover Township and the community of Guilford.</p><br>
<p>The Franklin Harris Farmstead is a historic farm complex located outside the village of Salem in Columbiana County, Ohio, United States. Once home to a prominent former soldier, the farmstead includes a high-style farmhouse from the 1890s, and it has been named a historic site.</p><br>
<p>Growing up a Quaker, Franklin Harris lived in Butler Township from the cradle. At age 22, two months after the outbreak of the Civil War, he enlisted in military service; after service in the 104th OVI, he served in the carpenter corps until being discharged in 1863. Returning home, he worked in Salem and rented a farm before buying the present property. He and his wife Priscilla were responsible for the construction of the present farmstead, which they operated as a dairy farm.</p><br>
<p>Built in 1894, the farmhouse mixes elements of the Queen Anne and Stick-Eastlake styles. Set on a foundation of sandstone, the wooden house is covered with a slate roof. One of the houses small porches shelters the main entrance, which is placed in the area sheltered between the ell and the houses main section. Both the main section and the ell are two and a half stories in height and rise to intersecting gables. Fenestration is generally regular, although only a single window overlooks the entrance porch, and the front end of the main section of the house includes two irregularly placed windows.</p><br>
<p>In 1997, the Harris Farmstead was listed on the National Register of Historic Places, qualifying because of its historically significant architecture. The designation embraces five buildings across an area of 4 acre, including the agricultural outbuildings.</p><br>
<p>The Samuel Simpson House is a historic house at 1370 Scard Road in Wallingford, Connecticut. Built in 1840, it was the home of 19th century industrialist and philanthropist Samuel Simpson. The home was extensively redesigned by New Haven, Connecticut architect Henry Austin about 1867, giving it Renaissance Revival characteristings. The house originally stood on North Main Street in downtown Wallingford before being moved to its current location on Scard Road in the 20th century. Simpson, a silver manufacturer, partnered with Robert Wallace in the firm of R. Wallace & Company, the forerunner of Wallace Silversmiths Inc. He was later president of Simpson, Hall & Miller, which was one of the founding companies of the International Silver Company. Simpson’s great-granddaughter, Margaret Tibbits Taber, later had a bookstore in the house. Mrs Taber was also known for her philanthropy and dedication to the town of Wallingford&#39;s public library.</p><br>
<h2>Appearances in pop culture</h2><br>
<p>In 2012, the Samuel Simpson House served as the main location in director A.D. Calvo&#39;s film The Midnight Game.</p><br>
<p>Lake Bess is a natural freshwater lake southeast of Winter Haven, Florida. It is pear shaped and has a 147 acre surface area. Two blocks from its northeast shore is a WalMart supercenter and just north of that is Cypress Gardens Boulevard. On its north-northwest side is a gated residential community. To its west is Lake Ruby. The two lakes are separated by a 40 ft strip of land. On its south-southwest shore are residential developments. On its southeast is pastureland. On its east-northeast shore are two country clubs  and mobile homes.</p><br>
<p>Lake Bess is completely surrounded by private property. Therefore, it has no public swimming area or public boat ramp and there is no public access for fishing. Fishing can only be done by obtaining permission from property owners. The Hook and Bullet website, however, says this lake contains blue catfish, gar and crappie.</p><br>
<p>The Giants of Monte Prama are ancient stone sculptures created by the Nuragic civilization of Sardinia, Italy. Fragmented into numerous pieces, they were found by accident in March 1974, in farmland near Monte Prama, in the comune of Cabras, province of Oristano, in central-western Sardinia. The statues are carved in local sandstone and their height varies between 2 and 2.5 meters.</p><br>
<p>After four excavation campaigns carried out between 1975 and 1979, the roughly five thousand pieces recovered – including fifteen heads and twenty two torsos – were stored for thirty years in the repositories of the National Archaeological Museum of Cagliari, while a few of the most important pieces were exhibited in the museum itself. Along with the statues, other sculptures recovered at the site include large models of nuraghe buildings and several baetylus sacred stones of the "oragiana" type, used by Nuragic Sardinians in the making of "giants&#39; graves".</p><br>
<p>After the funds allocation of 2005 by the Italian Ministry of Cultural Heritage and the Sardinia Region, restoration is being carried out since 2007 until present at the Centro di restauro e conservazione dei beni culturali of "Li Punti" (Sassari), coordinated by the Soprintendenza of cultural heritage for Sassari and Nuoro, together with the Soprintendenza of Cagliari and Oristano. At this location, twenty five statues, consisting of warriors, archers, boxers and nuraghe models, have been exhibited to the public at special events since 2009. The exhibition has become permanently accessible to the public since November 2011.</p><br>
<p>According to the most recent estimates, the fragments came from a total of forty four statues. Those already restored and assembled are twenty five, in addition to thirteen nuraghe models, while another three statues and three nuraghe models have been identified from fragments that cannot currently be re-assembled.</p><br>
<p>Once the restoration has been completed, the majority of the finds should be returned to Cabras to be on display in a museum.</p><br>
<p>Depending on the different hypotheses, the dating of the Kolossoi – the name that archaeologist Giovanni Lilliu gave to the statues – varies between the 11th and the 8th century BC. If this is further confirmed by archaeologists, they would be the most ancient anthropomorphic sculptures of the Mediterranean area, after the Egyptian statues, preceding the kouroi of ancient Greece.</p><br>
<p>The scholar David Ridgway on this unexpected archaeological discovery wrote: while the archaeologist Miriam Scharf Balmuth said:</p><br>
<h2>History of Prenuragic statuary</h2><br>
<p>The first attestations of sculpture in Sardinia are much more ancient than the statues of Mont&#39;e Prama. The most remote example is the so-called Venus of Macomer, in non finito technique, dated to 3750-3300 BC by the archaeologist Giovanni Lilliu, whereas for the archaeologist Enrico Atzeni the statuette should date back to Early Neolithic (6000-4000 BC). More recent studies have stressed the similarities to the Venus figurines, already noticed by Giovanni Lilliu, and hypothesized a retro-dating to Upper Palaeolithic or Mesolithic Age.</p><br>
<p>Statuettes later than this one – but still pertaining to the Mother Goddess iconography – are many volumetric figurines produced by the Ozieri culture, among which is the idol of Perfugas, representing a goddess suckling her child. The same symbolism was later used by the Nuragic civilization with the so-called.</p><br>
<p>After the three-dimensional figurines of the Goddess – but still belonging to the Neolithic Age – are the idols in flat geometric style, that could represent the Goddess in her chthonic aspect, in that all examples of this type of idol have been found inside graves.</p><br>
<p>Investigations carried out after the fortuitous discovery of a prehistoric altar at Monte d&#39;Accoddi (Sassari), have revealed that – alongside the production of geometric figurines – the great statuary was already present at that time in Sardinia, given that at the "temple of Accoddi" several stelae and menhirs were recovered. Beside the ramp leading to the top of the main building, excavations revealed the presence of a great menhir, with several others positioned around it. A sculpted face, engraved with spiraliform patterns and probably belonging to a statue-stele, has been assigned to the earliest phase of the site – called the "red-temple". A large granite stele with a female figure in relief, has been attributed to the second phase – called the "great-temple".</p><br>
<p>Still in the time-frame of the Prenuragic age, but in this case during the Eneolithic period, there is a remarkable production of "Laconi-type" statue-menhirs or statue-stelae, assigned to the Abealzu-Filigosa culture and characterized by a uniform tripartite scheme encompassing, from top to bottom: a stylized T-shaped human face; the depiction of the enigmatic "capovolto" (the capsized) in the kind of trident capovolto; and a double-headed dagger in relief.</p><br>
<p>After the spreading of Bonnanaro culture in the Island, the tradition of the statue-stelae seems to die out, while it continues until 1200 BC with the Nuragic-related Torrean civilization facies of Corsica, featuring warriors represented in the Filitosa sculptures.</p><br>
<h2>From aniconic baetyls to Nuragic statuary</h2><br>
<p>During the Early Bronze Age the "epicampaniform style", a late expression of the Bell-Beaker culture, became spread both in Sardinia and Corsica. From this cultural period the Nuragic civilization would arise, paralleling similar architectural developments in southern Corsica, in such a way that the Gallura Nuragic facies shows a synchronic evolution with the Nuragic torrean civilization.</p><br>
<p>However, while common architectonic traditions of Central-Western Mediterranean evidence the close relationships between islands, it is exactly the sculpture tradition that begins to diversify. In fact, while Early Bronze Age Sardinia abandoned the traditions of Eneolithic statue-stelae, in Corsica the production of menhirs continued without interruption, eventually originating the Torrean statue-stelae during the Middle and Late Bronze Age.</p><br>
<p>An intermediate stage of this process could be represented by the appearance of hammered relief sculptures during the Middle Bronze Age – in both Sardinia and Corsica: in the former country, baetyls were engraved with male or female sexual characters in relief, while in the latter – perhaps due to the greater presence of metal implements – relief sculpture was applied for the first time to menhirs. In both islands, anthropomorphic statuary in the strict sense of the word would not exist between 1600 and 1250 BC, but sexual characters and weapons were represented in Sardinia and Corsica respectively. In a successive evolution stage, the relief technique was employed in Sardinia – for the first time after Eneolithic sculptures – to represent a human face, as shown in the famous baetyl of "San Pietro di Golgo" (Baunei).</p><br>
<p>There is no longer any dispute about the authenticity and Nuragic manufacture of the three statue-baetyls discovered in northern Sardinia, a region where a Corsican population of Nuragic culture was probably settled. At first the three statues were considered to be Punic or Roman artefacts, but these sculptures evidently portray warriors with an envelope-shaped, crested and horned nuragic helmet – as also suggested by the crest and by the circular cavities that probably held the horns (these latter still present in the statue-baetyl from Bulzi, Sassari).</p><br>
<p>According to the archaeologist Fulvia Lo Schiavo, the sculptures of northern Sardinia testify the existence of a Nuragic proto-statuary, an intermediate step of an evolutionary process that from the "eyed baetyls" of the "Oragiana type", would eventually lead to the anthropomorphic statues of Mont&#39;e Prama. This hypothesis agrees with an earlier idea carried out by Giovanni Lilliu, following the examination of the "baetylus of Baunei", where the famous archaeologist saw the abandonment of the ancient aniconic ideology and a revival of the human form representation:</p><br>
<p>This evolution suggests that besides the commissioners, also the sculptors of the statues of Monte Parma could have been Nuragic. In fact, within the Nuragic civilization craftsmen able to perform perfect stonework were certainly at hand, as demonstrated by the refined sacred wells and giants graves built in the isodomic technique. The ability in handling stones and the spread of sculpture in the round throughout Nuragic Sardinia, is also attested by the nuraghe models mentioned above and by sculpted protomes found in several sacred wells.</p><br>
<h2>The findspot</h2><br>
<p>The majority of the sculptures were thrown in pieces upon the necropolis found at Monte Prama, a low hill 50 m AMSL and strategically located in the very center of the Sinis peninsula. Just one other fragmented sculpture – a human head – had been found elsewhere, near the sacred well of Banatou (Narbolia, OR). This site is ca. 2 km away from the nuraghe SUraki, and the head was found together with various ceramics finds, either Punic and Nuragic.</p><br>
<p>Given the location of the numerous fragments at Mont&#39;e Prama and of the unique one at Narbolia, it is assumed that the statues were originally erected near the necropolis itself or in a still unidentified place within the Sinis peninsula, a region extending north from the Gulf of Oristano, between the Sea of Sardinia and the pond of Cabras.</p><br>
<p>The Sinis peninsula was occupied as far back as the Neolithic age – as attested by the remarkable archaeological area of Cuccuru s&#39;Arriu. This site is well known for a necropolis dating back to Middle Neolithic (3.800-3200 B.C), where in the graves, a female idol in volumetric style was normally placed. Subsequently, all the cultural shifts that took place on the Island during the millennia, are attested in the Sinis region. Among these, particularly relevant is the Bell-beaker culture, preluding the Bonnanaro culture (c. 1800 BC) that would eventually lead to the Nuragic civilization.</p><br>
<p>Due to its fortunate geographic position and the considerable number of important settlements, such as Tharros, the Sinis peninsula was a bridgehead for the routes towards the Balearic Islands and the Iberian peninsula, related from time immemorial to Sardinia. The Balearic Islands were in fact home to the Talaiotic culture, similar under many aspects to the Nuragic and Torrean civilizations. The Sinis peninsula is furthermore favoured by the proximity of Montiferru, a region that hosts an ancient volcano, site of important iron and coppers mines. The territory of Montiferru is also strictly controlled by a system of numerous nuraghes.</p><br>
<p>A statue similar to those of Mont&#39;e Prama was found at San Giovanni Suergiu, Sulcis, in Southern Sardinia.</p><br>
<h2>Toponym</h2><br>
<p>The hill of Mont&#39;e Prama was covered in ancient times by dwarf fan palms, Chamaerops humilis, from which the name Prama, meaning palm in Sardinian language, would originate.</p><br>
<p>The necropolis location is listed as "M. Prama" on the cadastral map of the municipality of Cabras, and on the 1:25000 maps of the Italian Military Geographic Institute, sheet 216 N.E.</p><br>
<p>The letter "M". has been given several interpretation, such as "Mont&#39;e", "Monti" "Monte", "Montiju", all still in use in Sardinian language. In the Campidanu plain even a small hill is a "mount", such as "Monti Urpinu", in Cagliari, that is only 98 meter high on sea level.</p><br>
<p>In the past such a toponym, indicating the presence of dwarf fan palms on the spot, was recorded in some written documents. The theologian and writer Salvatore Vidal, speaking of the Sinis peninsula in his Clypeus Aureus excellentiae calaritanae (1641), reports the toponym Montigu de Prama. The Franciscan friar Antonio Felice Mattei, who wrote in the 18th century a historiography of Sardinian dioceses and bishops, mentions Montigu Palma as one of the localities within the Sinis peninsula.</p><br>
<h2>Archaeological context and historical problematics</h2><br>
<p>The exact date of manufacturing of the statues remains uncertain. The different hypotheses, brought forward by several scholars, encompass a time period between the 10th and 8th century BC, namely between the Final Bronze Age and the Iron Age. The sculptures are in any case believed to originate within a period of cultural transformation, but profoundly rooted in the Late Bronze Age.</p><br>
<p>In this timeframe the Sinis peninsula – and the entire Gulf of Oristano as well – was an important economical and commercial area, a fact well attested by the high concentration of Nuragic monuments: at least 106 are officially recorded, comprising Giants&#39; graves (Tumbas de sos zigantes in Sardinian), sacred wells and nuraghes. During the blooming Nuragic period, this number must have been much higher, given that the intense agricultural works have led, in the course of centuries, to the dismantling of several monuments.</p><br>
<p>Starting form 14th century BC the Mycenaeans landed in the Sinis peninsula and elsewhere in Sardinia, whereas the first presence of Philistines is dated ca. 1200 BC. However, given that Philistines made use of Mycenenan-like pottery and given the long-standing relationships between Crete and Sardinia, it cannot be ruled out that Philistines were present in Sardinia earlier than the 13th century BC.</p><br>
<p>During this period begins also the trading of oxhide ingots between Cyprus and Sardinia. This exchange of ingots lasted until the end of the Bronze Age. The Sinis peninsula itself is to be considered an important metallurgic area, given the proximity of Montiferru, controlled by numerous nuraghes.</p><br>
<p>During the Final Bronze Age the Nuragic civilization underwent fast social transformations: nuraghes were no longer built, many were no longer used or became temples; Giants’ graves were no longer constructed, even if many of them would be re-used during the subsequent centuries. The same phenomenon occurs for sacred wells and other cultic places, some were abandoned, others remained in use up to the Iron Age. There are no hints of invasions, wars among Nuragic communities or destructive fires. Therefore, these important changes are attributed to internal factors, in turn determining a gradual cultural change, and a social and territorial reorganization within the Nuragic society.</p><br>
<p>Another relevant element was the trans-marine navigation journeys that Nuragics made towards several locations in the Mediterranean. Their presence is attested at Gadir, Huelva, Camas ( El Carambolo), Balearic Islands, Etruria, Lipari Islands, Agrigento (Cannatello), Crete and el Ahwat.</p><br>
<p>These attestations – pertaining to the time period between late Bronze Age and throughout Iron Age – are constantly increasing in number, due to new findings but also to studies in progress of Nuragic pottery, formerly classified as generic barbarian ware and, as such, preserved in repositories of museums without being further analysed.</p><br>
<p>This dynamic scenario is further complicated by the age-old problem of the possible identification between Nuragic people and the Shardana, one of the Sea peoples. Textual evidence from cuneiform tablets and Egyptian reliefs from the New Kingdom, relate that Sea Peoples were the final catalyst that put the fall of Aegean cities and Levantines states in motion. The Shardana apparently took part as mercenaries in several conflicts involving Ancient Egypt and are often associated with Sardinia.</p><br>
<p>Scholars are still debating whether the Shardana were originally from Sardinia or if they went there after having been defeated by the Egyptians. Egyptologists David O&#39;Connor and Stephen Quirke on this subject have said:</p><br>
<p>Between the 12th and 9th century BC, Sardinia appears to be connected to Canaan, Syria and Cyprus by at least four cultural currents: the first two are the most ancient, they can be defined as Syrian and Philistine, and are exquisitely commercial in character. From the 9th century BC the third and fourth cultural currents began to appear in the West. One can be defined as "Cypriot-Phoenician", in that it was built by peoples originating from Cyprus and Phoenician cities; this movement had relationships with Sardinia but, most importantly, would lead to the founding of Carthage. The fourth current interested the Island to a largest extent, beginning from the 8th century BC, with the urbanization of important centres such as Tharros, Othoca and Neapolis.</p><br>
<p>The transformation of these coastal centres, mainly constituted of a mixed population with a large presence of Nuragic aristocracy – as demonstrated by the grave goods – gave a notable contribution to change the traits of the Island and of the Nuragic civilization, accompanying the decline of the latter until the Carthaginian invasion. However, it is certain that during the 7th century BC the Sinis peninsula and the Gulf of Oristano were still controlled by Nuragic aristocrats and that the end this supremacy coincided with the destruction of the Giants’ statues.</p><br>
<h2>The necropolis</h2><br>
<p>The fragments of the sculptures have been found on top of a necropolis situated on the slopes of Mont&#39;e Prama, a hill towered by a complex nuraghe at its top. The necropolis is composed of wall-tombs, mostly stripped of grave goods. Those up to now investigated contained human skeletons placed in a sitting and crouching position, belonging to male and female individuals between thirteen and fifty years old. Presently (2012), the mortuary complex can be divided into two main areas: the first one, parallelepiped-shaped, was investigated by the archaeologist Alessandro Bedini in 1975; the second one is serpentine-shaped and has been excavated between 1976 and 1979, by Maria Ferrarese Ceruti and Carlo Tronchetti.</p><br>
<p>A paved road, delimited by vertical slab stones, runs parallel to the latter mortuary area. The construction of the road is supposed to be contemporary to the monumentalization of the necropolis. The Bedini excavations have unearthed an area containing thirty two slab-cist tombs, made of a stone different from the one used in the serpentine-shaped area. The cist tombs were mostly without their cover slabs, as these were wrecked during centuries of agricultural activities in the area. This so-called "Bedini’s area" appears to have undergone three phases of development:</p><br>
<p>the first phase is represented by circular well-tombs, the most archaic ones. They are similar to those discovered in southern Sardinia at the Temple of Antas, dedicated to Sardus Pater Babai, the eponymous god of Nuragic Sardinians</p><br>
<p>the second phase should coincide with the cladding of the tombs with stone slabs</p><br>
<p>the third phase-contemporary to the necropolis excavated by the archaeologist Carlo Tronchetti – should correspond to the placing of the statues.</p><br>
<p>In the section excavated by Carlo Tronchetti, the beginning (spatial and chronological) of the necropolis is marked by a slabstone standing upright, juxtaposed with the first tomb at the Southern side. The Northern and more recent side is also delimited by a slabstone standing upright. Beside the cover slabs of the serpentine shaped layout, further small pits used for the deposition of human bones have been unearthed. Due to the presence of the "Bedini’s area", the last three tombs do not follow the natural pathway but have been built on the side of the pre-existing burials.</p><br>
<p>The necropolis has not been yet (2012) fully excavated.</p><br>
<h2>Hypotheses on the necropolis appearance</h2><br>
<p>Due to the incompleteness of the excavations, it is not yet possible to determine the real appearance of the necropolis and grouping of the sculptures.</p><br>
<p>Some scholars have cast doubts about the original pertinence of the latter to the necropolis, in that the only evidence in favour of this fact would be the spatial contiguity between the statues and the mortuary complex itself. This led others to hypothesize that the statues had been conceived as telamons to adorn a temple, close to the necropolis but dedicated to the Sardus Pater. According to this theory, the temple with statues would have been erected to commemorate nuragic victories against the Carthaginian invaders, during the sardo-punic wars. In this case the statues would have portrayed the retinue or the bodyguards of the god himself.</p><br>
<p>One has to notice that nearby the necropolis a rectangular structure has been erected but this building is in concrete and clearly referable to the Roman age, even if it cannot be completely ruled out – due to the lack of excavations – that underneath the Roman building there was a nuragic megaron temple. The presence of other sacral monuments in the vicinity of the necropolis is in any case suggested by the finding of typical quoins employed in the construction of sacred wells.</p><br>
<p>Other scholars dispute this theory and tend to think that statues and necropolis were part of the same complex. In this view it is incorrect to hold as a sole hint for this hypotheses the closeness of the sculpture to the mortuary complex. In tomb number six of the "Tronchetti’s area", a piece of scrap for manufacturing shields was discovered, leading to the suggestion that the statues had been sculpted on the site and expressly for the necropolis.</p><br>
<p>Given some technical specificities, both the nuraghe models and the "oragiana type" baetyls, point to the same conclusion. In this case the necropolis and the statues could be reminiscent of Giants&#39; graves. The layout of the complex recalls in fact the plan of a Giants’ grave, and this suggestion is reinforced by the presence of baetyls, a feature typical of the ancient Bronze Age Sardinian tombs. This analogy would attest the ancient architects’ will to perpetuate a link with the funerary traditions of their ancestors.</p><br>
<p>As studies stand now, the authors do admit that even this last hypotheses is not supported by sound proofs – as far as the aspect and original composition of the statues-tombs complex is concerned. It has nevertheless been suggested that, if the hypotheses is correct, the sculptures would have been arranged at the East and West side of the serpentine-shaped necropolis, to form a sort of gigantic human exedra reminiscent of the half-circle exedra of a Giants’ grave. The boxers could have formed the most external part of this arrangement, whereas archers and warriors would have been located in the center, immediately next to the tombs. According to this hypotheses, the nuraghe models would have formed the crowning of the mound, being arranged on the cover slabs of the tombs.</p><br>
<h2>History of the excavations</h2><br>
<p>The first find most probably belonging to the monumental complex of Mont&#39;e Prama was recovered in 1965. It is a fragmented head in sandstone, found at the bottom of the sacred well of Banatou (Narbolia). Originally, the fragment of Banatou was held as Punic, given the large presence of Punic artifacts and the alleged absence of Nuragic statuary. The uncovering of the statues at the necropolis of Monti Prama had to wait almost ten further years.</p><br>
<p>According to the account of the two finders, Sisinnio Poddi and Battista Meli, the finding took place by chance in March 1974, while they were preparing the sowing of two adjacent lots that they rented yearly from the "Confraternity of Santo Rosario" of Cabras. Although the ground was sandy, it was rich in stony artifacts and column fragments, regularly brought to light by the plough. The two farmers continued to accumulate the pieces aside, not understanding their archaeological value.</p><br>
<p>At the beginning of every sowing season the two finders noticed that the fragments of the previous year had considerably diminished, because they were removed from people aware of their historical value or employed as building material. It was the land’s owner, Giovanni Corrias, that in front of a pile of stones and earth bearing the remains of a giant’s head, realized together with Sisinnio Poddi, that the head belonged to a statue. Corrias immediately informed the archaeologist Giuseppe Pau (Oristano), who in turn alerted the Superintendence of Cultural Heritage for Cagliari and Oristano.</p><br>
<p>During the early stages of discovery, the archaeologist Giuseppe Atzori insistently pointed out to the authorities the failure to fence the site. Actually at the Center for Restoration and Conservation of Li Punti (Sassari) most of the sculptures are without head and the cause lies in the fact that the site was unattended and was plundered for a long time. The looting was focused on the best parts of the sculptures, principally the head with the enigmatic eyes. Only later the area was purchased and excavation campaigns began.</p><br>
<p>According to the archaeologist Marco Rendeli, the history of the early researches is fragmented and defective and involves several archaeologists. Some of them performed short-term excavations (Atzori, 1974; Pau 1977), other researchers later carried out programmed investigations (Bedini 1975; Lilliu, Tore, Atzeni 1977; Ferrarese Ceruti-Tronchetti 1977).</p><br>
<h2>General characteristics and stylistic comparisons</h2><br>
<p>On the whole the statues are highly stylized and geometrically shaped, similarly to the so-called "Daedalic style", well established in Crete during the 7th century BC. The face of the statues follows a T-scheme typical of Sardinian bronze statuettes, and of neighbouring Corsican statues. Superciliary arch and nose are very pronounced, the eyes are sunken and symbolically rendered by two concentric circles; the mouth is incised with a short stroke, linear or angular. The height of the statues varies between 2 and 2.50 meters.</p><br>
<p>They appear to represent boxers, archers and warriors, all standing upright, barefoot and with legs slightly parted. Feet are clearly defined, resting on a square base. A further characteristic is the presence of geometrical, decorative chevron (zig-zag) patterns, parallel lines and concentric circles, in cases where it was not possible, for statics reasons, to represent such motives in relief. This happens both for the object and for bodily features. As an example, the braids coming down at the sides of the face are represented in relief, but the hair is rendered with incised fish-bone patterns. The archers’ brassard is slightly in relief, while the details are rendered with geometrical engravings. These peculiarities – together with other evidences – demonstrate that the Mont&#39;e Prama statues draw heavily on the Sardinian statuettes.</p><br>
<p>The statues should have been originally painted, traces of colors have been recovered on some of them: an archer exhibits a red-painted chest, whereas a black colour has been found on other fragments.</p><br>
<p>It is difficult to find parallels for these sculptures in the Mediterranean area:</p><br>
<p>archaeologist Carlo Tronchetti speaks of fully orientalizing commissioners and ideologies. Accordingly, other scholars – like Paolo Bernardini – identify in the sculptures Oriental influences, with some similarities to archaic Etruscan sculptures</p><br>
<p>archaeologist Brunilde Sismondo Ridgway finds resemblances to Picentines, Lunigianian and Daunian sculptures of the 8th - 5th centuries BC, thus collocating the statues within the stylizing Italic and Aegean naturalistic current</p><br>
<p>according to Giovanni Lilliu the sculptures belong to the geometric style, underscored by the engraved ornamental signs, and take direct inspiration from the Sardinian statuettes of the "Abini-Teti" type. According to the distinguished archaeologist it is thus profoundly wrong to assign the statues to the Orientalizing period, with the possible exception of the colossal body structure</p><br>
<p>archaeologist Marco Rendeli considers unsatisfactory all the attempts to compare the Sinis statues to those found in Hellenic, Italic, and Etruscan areas. According to him the correct approach implies understanding the statues as a unicum, originated from interactions between Levantine artisans and Nuragic commissioners. This uniqueness is confirmed also by the peculiar well-tombs of the necropolis, finding no parallels in other sites, either in Western or in Eastern Mediterranean.</p><br>
<h2>Boxers</h2><br>
<p>Boxer is the conventional term referring to a category of Nuragic bronze statuettes, furnished with a weapon similar to the cestus, that wraps the forearm with a rigid sheath, probably metallic.</p><br>
<p>The panoply of the warrior or wrestler – depending on different interpretations – also comprised a semi-rigid, curved rectangular shield.</p><br>
<p>It is generally believed that the boxers were taking part in sacred or funeral games in honor of the deceased, like elsewhere in the Mediterranean area.</p><br>
<p>Boxers make up the most numerous and uniform group within the Sinis statues, showing only minor variations in size and unimportant particulars.</p><br>
<p>Boxers are invariably represented bare-chested, with engraved navel or nipples; and they wear loin-cloths with the rear trimmed to a triangle, a typical feature of Sardinian bronze boxers and warrior figurines, such as the "archer of Serri" (from Serri, the findspot).</p><br>
<p>The upper part of the chest is protected by a belt from which –in some cases – shallow grooves departs, depicting the strings used to tie the loin-cloths.</p><br>
<p>The boxers’ heads are covered by a smooth cap. A sleeve running from the elbow down, presumably originally in leather, protects their right arm. The sleeve terminates with a rounded cap into which the weapon, in metal or other material, was inserted.</p><br>
<p>The rectangular, curved shield is held by the left arm and raised above the men&#39;s head. It was most probably made of leather or other flexible material, given that it is bent on the long sides. Furthermore, internally it is framed with wooden twigs, whereas the external part is characterized by an embossed rim all along the perimeter. The shield appears to be fixed, on the internal side, to an armband decorated with chevron patterns, worn at the elbow of the left arm.</p><br>
<p>The figure of the boxer is attested in bronze statuettes, among which – beyond Sardinian specimens – is the notable figurine found at Vetulonia within the "tomb of the ruler".</p><br>
<p>The most similar bronze figurine however, both for typology and for distinguishing marks, is the statuette from Dorgali.</p><br>
<h2>Archers</h2><br>
<p>The fragments have, up to now, allowed restoration of five statues for this iconographic type.</p><br>
<p>Archers show more variation than boxers, despite their much smaller number. The most frequent iconography represents a male warrior dressed in a short tunic. A square pectoral with slightly concave sides is worn on top of a tunic. In some cases the tunic reaches the groin, in other instances the genitals are left exposed.</p><br>
<p>Beyond the pectoral, other elements of the panoply are represented, such as gorger and helmet. The different fragments of upper limbs often show the left arm furnished with a brassard holding a bow, while the right hand is extended forward like in the typical gesture of salutation commonly seen in Sardinian bronze statuettes.</p><br>
<p>Legs are protected by peculiar greaves with notched borders, hanging by laces underneath the tunic; a leg guard shows a figure-of-eight outlined in its back, while a sandal is occasionally depicted on a fragmented foot.</p><br>
<p>Depiction of weapons is extremely detailed. In analogy to bronze figurines, the quiver is sculpted on the back, in a very refined way.</p><br>
<p>It is furthermore evident that there are two types of bow:</p><br>
<p>a heavy one with a quadrangular cross-section and cross-ribbed</p><br>
<p>a lighter one with circular cross-section, possibly pertaining to a mixed weaponry.</p><br>
<p>Nuragic soldiers comprised in fact archers, swordsmen and warriors bearing a mixed weaponry, consisting of a bow and a sword. Bow and sword may be outstretched at the same time, such as in the "Uta-type" bronze figurines (from Uta, the findspot), or the sword may remain in the scabbard while the archer is shooting an arrow.</p><br>
<p>The quiver-scabbard pair is visible in at least one statue and finds parallels either in the "Uta" and in the "Abini-type" bronze figurines (the latter named after their finding spot, the Nuragic sanctuary of "Abini" in Teti). Archaeologist Giovanni Lilliu stressed in particular the similarity between the crescent-shaped hilt of the Mont&#39;e Prama statue and the one held by the archer of Santa Vittoria di Serri, wearing the same loincloth, trimmed in the back like a tailcoat, as the Monte Prama boxers.</p><br>
<p>Archers’ faces are similar to those of the boxers, with the hair gathered up in braids coming down at the face sides. The head is protected, up to the nape, by a calotte-shaped, crested and horned helmet, with the ears left free.</p><br>
<p>Several fragments show that the horns are slightly curved and bending forward, of uncertain length and pointed at the end (different from the warriors); furthermore there are traces of a support, obtained from the same stone, joining the horns approximately at their half-length.</p><br>
<p>The bronze figurine most similar to the archers of Mont&#39;e Prama appears to be the archer from "Abini".</p><br>
<h2>Warriors</h2><br>
<p>This iconographic type – very often represented among the Nuragic bronze figurines – has been reported only twice among the Mont&#39;e Prama statues, plus a third possible case, of which only one is in a good state of preservation. However, a reassembled shield, not assigned to any of the former three specimens, and numerous other fragments of a shield and (possibly) of a torso, suggest that the number of warriors was larger.</p><br>
<p>Initially, the fragments of round-shaped shields had been attributed to archers, but later the hilt of a sword and similarities of the shields geometrical patterns to those of some bronzetti, led to postulate the presence of one or more statues of warriors.</p><br>
<p>Warriors differs from archers essentially through their garb.</p><br>
<p>The best preserved head exhibits an "envelope-shaped", crested and horned Nuragic helmet that – like archers&#39; helmets – must have presented the typical long horns portrayed in bronze figurines. Several small cylindrical fragments have in fact been found during excavations. Once recomposed, some of these horns appear to bear small spheres at their terminal ends, like in some bronzetti, either anthropomorphic (in this case only warriors, never archers) or zoomorphic.</p><br>
<p>The best preserved warriors statue is among the most striking pieces of Monte Prama. Besides the horned helmet – whose horns are broken – it is marked by the presence of an armour with vertical stripes, short on the back but solid on the shoulders and more expanded on the breast.</p><br>
<p>By analogy with armours visible on several bronze figurines, it is thought that the breastplate was built of metal strips applied on hardened leather. A panel, decorated and fringed, comes out from the lower part of the breastplate.</p><br>
<p>The shield is represented in a very detailed way, with chevron patterns reminiscent of geometrical drawings on pintaderas, and with radiating grooves that converge towards the shield-boss.</p><br>
<p>The bronze figurine most similar to the warriors of Monte Prama is the one found at Senorbì.</p><br>
<h2>Nuraghe models</h2><br>
<p>Multi–towered nuraghe were the highest megalithic constructions ever built – after the Egyptian pyramids – during the Bronze Age in the Mediterranean protohistoric area. The central tower from nuraghe Arrubiu (Orroli), one of the largest in the Island, reached the height of thirty meters and the general plan of that monument consists of at least nineteen towers articulated around several courtyards, occupying an area of about 3000 meters square excluding the village which lies outside the walls. It was the result of a unified design covering both the keep and the pentagonal bastion all made at the same stage in the fourteenth century BC.</p><br>
<p>A nuraghe model is defined as the down-scaled, three-dimensional representation of Nuragic towers and castles, for sacred and/or political purposes. In analogy to the full-sized monuments, models can be divided into two general categories:</p><br>
<p>complex nuraghe models, with a higher central tower surrounded by bastions and four further towers, the so-called quadrilobate (or multi–towered nuraghe)</p><br>
<p>models of simple, single-towered nuraghe.</p><br>
<p>Mont&#39;e Prama is the archaeological site where the largest number of nuraghe models has been recovered.</p><br>
<p>At the restoration center of Li Punti it has been possible to reconstruct five models for complex nuraghes and twenty for simple nuraghes. The models of Mont&#39;e Prama are characterized by their notable size, up to 1,40 m in height for quadrilobates and between 14 and 70 cm in diameter for the single towered specimens, and by some unusual technical features.</p><br>
<p>These big sculptures are in fact modular, unlike the remaining nuraghe models from Sardinia, in that the shaft of the mast tower is joined to the top part through an inter-space, whose pivot and binder is constituted by a core of lead. Upper platforms have been faithfully represented in the various nuraghe models. On the top of the towers a conical, dome-shaped element has been sculpted, indicating the covering of a staircase leading to the platform itself.</p><br>
<p>Several architectural elements have been represented with engraved signs. The parapet of the platform has been portrayed with a single or double row of incised triangles, or with vertical lines, similar to miniaturized nuraghes from other Sardinian sites, e.g. the high-relief from nuraghe Cann&#39;e Vadosu and the nuraghe model from the meeting hut of Su Nuraxi in Barumini. Also the big slab-stones supporting the platforms have been rendered with decorative signs. The stone brackets and their function have been depicted by means of parallel incised lines or grooves and the blocks – abundantly found in archaeological sites after the collapse of top parts – confirm the perfect matching of these models with the Nuragic architecture of Middle and Recent Bronze Age.</p><br>
<h2>Oragiana baetyls</h2><br>
<p>The word "baetylus", probably from Hebraic Beth-El ("house of God"), originally denoted sacred stones of simple geometric shape and aniconic. In analogy to the religious meaning borne by their oriental counterparts, it is thought that for the Nuragics they could represent the deity’s house or the god himself, in an abstract and symbolic way. This is suggested by their constant presence in the cultic places of Nuragic civilization, from sanctuaries like Su Romanzesu in Bitti, to giants’ graves.</p><br>
<p>These artifacts can be divided into cone-shaped and truncated cone-shaped baetyls. The distinction is chronologically relevant, in that the latter are more recent and pertain to isodomic stone block giants’ graves. At Mont&#39;e Prama truncated cone-shaped baetyls with holes, of the so-called "Oraggiana" (or "Oragiana") type, have been found. According to archaeologist Giovanni Lilliu, the holes could represent the eyes of a deity, protecting and watching over the tombs. Nuragic baetyls are symbolic items typical of the Middle and Recent Bronze Age, sculpted approximately from the 14th century BC.</p><br>
<p>Their presence in the Monte Prama necropolis has been explained by Lilliu with two alternative hypotheses: the baetyls originated from a wrecked giants’ tomb or they are reproductions of more ancient specimens, due to a wish to preserve an ancient line of Nuragic tradition, in a sort of nostalgic commemoration. The double row of holes noticed in one of the baetyls from Monte Prama, unattested elsewhere in Sardinia, suggests that these artifacts are the same age as the necropolis. Some scholars believe in fact that they were expressly produced for the Monti Prama complex.</p><br>
<h2>The dating problem</h2><br>
<p>The chronology of the statues is still highly debated, due to various difficulties in establishing the period either of their production or of their violent deposition.</p><br>
<p>The first and most general question concerns their original placement, namely whether they were positioned on top of the necropolis or were associated with a temple located elsewhere.</p><br>
<p>According to some scholars the statues were sculpted in order to give a monumental character to the necropolis and placed immediately on top of the tombs. Others think that there are no evidences in favour of this hypothesis and that the statues originally were guarding a temple building, dating to the Final Bronze Age and dedicated to Sardus Pater.</p><br>
<p>A second general problem is the paucity of dated finds; pottery is extremely scant, the few fragments recovered date to the 9th century BC; the tombs are mostly stripped of grave goods, with the exception of tomb nr. 25 where an Egyptian scarab was found, and for some scholars, more precisely a Hyksos-type scaraboid.</p><br>
<p>The typology of scarabs similar to the Sinis specimen began to be produced during the Second Intermediate Period of Egypt, then continuing in the New Kingdom, especially during the Twentieth dynasty (ca. 1187-1064 BC). The specific design of the Mont&#39;e Prama seal is almost identical to a scarab found at the Samarian site of Tell Farah or at the Palestinian site of Tall al-Ajjul, the latter often identified as Sharuhen, the last Hyksos stronghold. However the most recent scarab belonging to this typology – although quite different in the design – had been found in Tyre and dated to the 8th century BC.</p><br>
<p>The Mont&#39;e Prama scarab was considered by archaeologists to be made of ivory or bone, but recent archaeometric analyses make it clear that it is a glazed steatite of Egyptian origin. Careful typological considerations showed that it is a true Egyptian scarab, picturing a stylized lotus ﬂower and dated to 1130-945 BC. Nevertheless, it must be stressed that dating sites and monuments through scarabs is scarcely reliable, given that these small objects can remain in use for many centuries after their production, as demonstrated in several cases.</p><br>
<p>The bronze fibula (brooch) found among the debris, seems to confirm a dating to the first half of the 8th century BC. Color traces, of animal origin, have been found on the stony surfaces and analysed at the restoration center of Li Punti. Although biological material could in principle be submitted to radiometric dating, the amounts of pigment found are too small for this. Such a coloring should not be in any case accidental and suggests that the statues had been originally painted.</p><br>
<p>A Punic amphora fragment found underneath an archer’s bust, offers a secure terminus ante quem non of the 4th century BC for the violent deposition of the sculptures. The archaeologist Carlo Tronchetti talking about that fragment wrote that the formation of the archaeological context:</p><br>
<p>A fragment of a Monte Prama-like statue was found at the holy well of Banatou (Narbolia), not far from nuraghe sUraki, together with mixed Punic and Nuragic pottery; but difficulties accompanying the excavations do not allow a reliable dating of this sculpted head.</p><br>
<p>Another general problem is the chronological relation of the huge statues to Sardinian bronze figurines (: brunzittos /: bronzetti), whose date is also presently highly debated: several scholars in fact maintain, by now, that the production of bronzetti began already between 1100 and 1000 BC as the stratigraphy of the Funtana Coberta site shows; the publication of data relating to the excavation of the giants&#39; grave of Orroli, not far from multi–towered nuraghe Arrubiu, corroborate previous studies at Funtana Coberta, confirming heavily that the bronze figurines date back to Bronze Age and not from Early Iron age, as some scholars have believed until now: in an undisturbed archaeological context, in fact, bronze figurines dating from the 13th to the 12th century BC have been discovered.</p><br>
<p>Given the close similarity between statues and bronzetti, it is questionable whether the former did inspire the latter – thus being more ancient – or, on the contrary, whether the bronzetti were models imposed by Nuragic aristocracy to the artisans: in this case the statues would be more recent than the bronzetti.</p><br>
<p>In July 2007 archaeologist Antonietta Boninu, head of the sculptures restoration in the center of Li Punti in Sassari said:</p><br>
<p>In December 2012 archaeologists Alessandro Bedini, Carlo Tronchetti, Giovanni Ugas, Raimondo Zucca, some of them authors of the archaeological excavations at Mont&#39;e Prama, proposed for the first time a reliable dating of the Heroon placing it in a period of between the 9th century BC and the end of the 8th century BC.</p><br>
<h2>Ideological aspects of the monumental complex</h2><br>
<p>In general, scholars see in the Mont&#39;e Prama complex a self-celebration site for a Nuragic aristocratic elite and its idealized, heroic warriors. Its strategic location within the Gulf of Oristano would thus aim to transmit to foreign visitors, especially the Phoenicians settled in Sardinia, a message of dominion and power over the island.</p><br>
<p>Nuraghe models found together with the statues can be seen both as sacred symbols and as a claim for Nuragic identity:</p><br>
<p>as symbols of identity, the various nuraghe models sculpted around the 10th century BC, would be a downright totem of the Nuragic world, besides being a symbol of power like the statues. Nuraghe models are in fact present in big meeting or "reunion huts" of several nuraghes, among which su Nuraxi at Barumini</p><br>
<p>as sacred symbols, nuraghe models could have been seen as guardians for the dead of a necropolis and/or as ritual devices, given their presence as altars in all the great Nuragic sanctuaries. This sacred/political ambivalence, the depiction of nuraghes in everyday objects such as buttons, smoothing tools and others, attest through the so-called models, a real cult of the Nuraghe monument.</p><br>
<p>Despite a general consensus about values and ideologies underlying the monumental complex of Mont&#39;e Prama, political implications and artistic influences are still hotly debated. As for political significance, some scholars tend to see in the small number of warriors, with respect to archers, a sign of military and political decay of the Nuragic society, caused by the establishment of Phoenician centers in Sardinia. This would be mirrored by the import and adoption of Levantine ideological models and by assignment of the statues to the orientalizing period spreading throughout the Mediterranean area during the 8th century BC.</p><br>
<p>Recent researches (2010) have nevertheless demonstrated that the old idea of a Nuragic civilization collapsing upon the arrival of Phoenicians and their colonization of Sardinia, is completely outdated. Phoenicians started to arrive in Sardinia around the 9th century BC, in small number, and remained scattered along the coastline. This period was the heyday of Nuragic society and Phoenicians started to cooperate with the Nuragics that, in turn, continued to administer harbours and economic resources.</p><br>
<p>According to archaeologist Giovanni Lilliu, the statues were not erected during a period of political decay, but during a great cultural revolution affecting aristocracy, economy and politics. The sculptures would thus reflect an independent and sovereign condition of Nuragic people.</p><br>
<p>Furthermore, the geometric "Abini-Teti style", rules out a possible placement of the statues within the orientalizing culture and period, only appearing in bronze artifacts of the 7th century BC. It is thus correct to speak of a Proto-Sardinian, oriental artistic trend. According to Giovanni Lilliu the statues belong to an indigenous artistic and political climax, with an almost urban character.</p><br>
<p>All these discrepancies among scholars are largely related to the chronological problem.</p><br>
<h2>Possible manufacturing techniques</h2><br>
<p>According to art historian Peter Rockwell, several metal tools have been used, probably made of bronze. In particular these tools can be noted:</p><br>
<p>a stone-cutter’s chisel, that is a chisel with blades of diverse sizes</p><br>
<p>an implement similar to a hand scraper, employed like or together with abrasives</p><br>
<p>a dry-point to carve sharp lines in detail</p><br>
<p>an instrument to produce holes, similar to a drill, whose usage by Nuragic people has been proven by archaeological finds</p><br>
<p>a tool similar to compass to engrave circular lines, such as those of the round eyes. About that tool Peter Rockwell wrote that: It is sure that Nuragic civilisation knew the compass because one iron compass was found at "Nuraghe Funtana", near Ittireddu.</p><br>
<p>a tooth chisel, that is a stone-cutter&#39;s chisel having a toothed and sharp edge, particularly suitable for marble sculpture, leaving the most interesting traces on the Giants. This tool was hit keeping it slanted on the surface, in order to create a first polishing with grooves of different tightness. According to scholars, this technique was introduced in Greece not before the 6th century BC.</p><br>
<h2>Other examples of sculptures</h2><br>
<p>Other similar sculptures are the finds from Viddalba (Ossi), held at the Museum Sanna of Sassari, and from Bulzi, of which not even the exact provenance is known. They are characterized as being halfway between statues and baetyls.</p><br>
<p>The crested and pointed helmet again draws heavily on bronze figurines, in particular on the "archer of Serri" and on an archer found at the megaron temple of Domu &#39;e Urxia. The sculptures are in limestone, the face has the familiar T-scheme, with two holes representing eyes. The crested helmet with front visor, is furnished with two hollows into which limestone horns, that have left some remnants, were fitted. If the crest recalls the helmets of some Nuragic bronzetti, the hollows hosting horns are in common with statue-menhirs of Cauria and Filitosa, dated to 1200 BC and assigned to the Torrean civilization, closely related to the Nuragic one.</p><br>
<p>According to archaeologist Paolo Bernardini, monumental statuary appears also at the site of "San Giovanni Sergiu", in South Sardinia, most probably linked to a necropolis. At the site, a surface survey among the stones piled from a field tillage uncovered a head carved in sandstone, surmounted by a tall and bent headgear, embellished with tusks. The lineaments, extremely damaged, still preserve two nested circles representing eyes, identical to those of the statues of Mont&#39;e Prama, and a sharp chin. Other fragments from the same site seem to belong to a human trunk with a cross belt, with a clear image of a small palm tree, sculpted in relief and partially painted in red.</p><br>
<p>Possible fragments of statues have been found in the sacred building of "Sa Sedda e Sos Carros" (Oliena), dedicated to the cult of water; some quoins, used as raw stone material to level out the stone floor, show traces of relief decorations reminiscent of those on the fragments of shields from Monte Prama; this possible link is reinforced by the finding of a putative fragment of a foot.</p><br>
<p>Zar cave  is an archaeological site of prehistoric human habitation during the Upper Paleolithic. It is located in the southern part of Zar village, in Kalbajar Rayon, Azerbaijan.</p><br>
<p>During an archaeological campaign in the Kalbajar Rayon during 1981 to 1987, cave paintings of prehistoric humans were discovered. Flint knives, arrowheads and bone combs were also found during the excavations. Traces of dents on discovered boards indicate that they were used for milling wheat. These boards resemble ones found in the Tağlar Cave. It is assumed that occupants of both caves belong to the same group or are related and have interacted. Numerous of the artifacts and items, that were produced in the Tağlar Cave were used at the Zar site.</p><br>
<p>Taghlar cave  is an archaeological site that was inhabited by prehistoric humans of the Mousterian culture during the Paleolithic.</p><br>
<p>The cave is located in Azerbaijan, in the southern part of Böyük Tağlar village, on the left banks of the Guruchay River.</p><br>
<p>The cave was excavated by M. M. Huseynov. Beginning in 1963, archaeological excavations were carried out in the cave and more than 7,000 stone tools and over 2,000 faunal fossilized bones were discovered and six cultural sediment layers were identified at the site. Pottery shards of the Middle Ages, the Bronze Age and Copper Age were found right underneath the top layer.</p><br>
<p>Indices of the Mousterian culture were found in between the 2nd and 6th layer. Numerous work-pieces of tool making, red, black, brown, grey, white and other colors have also been discovered in the inventory of the cave.</p><br>
<p>Vertillum is a Gallo-Roman site in the modern commune of Vertault in the Côte-d&#39;Or department of eastern France.</p><br>
<p>It has been extensively (and often destructively) excavated over the past century.</p><br>
<p>Many of the objects found at the site are held in the nearby Musée du Pays Châtillonnais.</p><br>
<p>Vertillum was classified as a Historical Monument in 1875. It includes many buried structures, remains of ramparts, thermal baths and a temple.</p><br>
<p>A Gallic oppidum covering about 25 hectare originally occupied the site, surrounded by a stone wall and ditch.</p><br>
<p>Later it evolved into a Gallo-Roman settlement with the typical features of such cities: residential areas, a forum, baths, temple and administrative center.</p><br>
<p>The Roman town would have had between 3,000 and 5,000 inhabitants.</p><br>
<p>Excavations in the 19th and early 20th centuries were extremely destructive. Formerly well-preserved buildings, particularly the baths, were destroyed.</p><br>
<p>Vertillum was a center for working copper-based alloys. Unfinished objects and waste material show that the smiths used foundry techniques to work sheet iron and to bronze the iron objects. These include handles, dishes and keys, some ornate and some simple. Unfortunately, the archaeological setting of the older discoveries was not recorded, so it is not possible to define a chronology of metal working at the site.</p><br>
<p>Yakso Falls is a 70 ft waterfall on Little River, in the Cascade Range east of Roseburg in the USA state of Oregon. The waterfall is about 27 mi from the unincorporated community of Glide along Little River Road , which becomes Forest Road 27.</p><br>
<p>In Chinook jargon, Yakso means "hair of the head". The waterfall is said to resemble the long hair of a woman.</p><br>
<p>Yakso Falls Trail, 0.7 mi long, leads from Lake in the Forest Campground in Umpqua National Forest to the waterfall. The trail, open year-round, passes through selectively logged old-growth forest.</p><br>
<p>Other waterfalls in the vicinity include Hemlock Falls, Middle Hemlock Falls, and Upper Hemlock Falls (also known as Clover Falls), all on nearby Hemlock Creek, a Little River tributary. Additional falls within 5 mi of Yakso Falls are Tributary Falls on an unnamed tributary of Hemlock Creek; Cedar Creek Falls on Cedar Creek; Flat Rock Falls on the Flat Rock branch of Clover Creek, and Grotto Falls on Emile Creek.</p><br>
<p>The Redya  is a river in Kholmsky, Poddorsky, Starorussky, and Parfinsky Districts of Novgorod Oblast in Russia. It is a left tributary of the Lovat River. It is 146 km long, and the area of its basin 671 km&sup2;.</p><br>
<p>Th source of the Redya is in Lake Rdeyskoye in Kholmsky District. The upper course of the river, including Lake Rdeyskoye, is located within Rdeysky Nature Reserve, which is a vast swampy unpopulated area. The Redya flows northeast. Onle several initial kilometers of its course are located in Kholmsky District, after which the Redya crosses over to Poddorsky District. The district administrative center, the selo of Poddorye, is located on the left bank of the Redya. Downstream of Poddorye, the Redya crosses into Starorussky District. In this area, the Redya is one of many sizeable rivers flowing northeast over the Ilmen Depression, towards Lake Ilmen. The course of the Redya is confined between the courses of the Lovat (east) and the Porusya (west). For approximately 20 km the Redya forms the boundary between Starorussky and Parfinsky Districts. In the lower course it departs from the boundary back into Starorussky District and joins the Lovat, forming a joint delta with the Lovat, the Pola, and the Polist.</p><br>
<p>Pottstown Roller Mill is a historic roller mill located on the Schuylkill River at Pottstown, Montgomery County, Pennsylvania. The original mill building was built in 1727. It was constructed of fieldstone, two-stories tall, and three bays wide and two bays deep. The building was altered in 1849. In 1856, two brick stories were added to the original fieldstone mill. A five bay, brick addition was subsequently added and doubled the size of the 1856 mill. The property includes the contributing dam and mill race.</p><br>
<p>It was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1974.</p><br>
<p>The mill provided flour to George Washington&#39;s Continental Army during the Revolutionary War.</p><br>
<p>It is "the roller mill of Jesse Ives... that provided shelter for escaping slaves" in the Underground Railroad.</p><br>
<p>The Mill faced extensive flooding due to Hurricane Agnes in 1972 but served the community continuously despite major damages. As of this time, the Mill no longer sold flour, but "a post Revolutionary War era water wheel turned by a race stream siphoned from the Manatawny still provide most of the power to operate the mill."</p><br>
<p>The survives today at 625 Industrial Highway, less than a mile from the original historic building.</p><br>
<p>Rih Dil  a natural lake located in northwestern Chin State in . It lies at about 3 kilometers from Zokhawthar village at an Indo-Burma border. The lake is about one mile in length and half a mile in width. It is about 3 miles in its circumference and the depth is about 60 feet. It has a heart-shaped outline.</p><br>
<p>The name is derived from a Mizo folktale of Rih-i. Rih-i had a younger sister who was murdered by her father upon the order of their stepmother. Rih-i&#39;s sister was resurrected with the help of a spirit. With the same magical spell Rih-i turned herself into a water body that became the lake.</p><br>
<p>Rih Dil occupied an important status in the traditional religion of the Mizo people. According to the ancestors of the tribals, it was a corridor to their heaven called Pialral. All souls destined to Pialral must pass through the lake. Due to its cultural importance it is often said the largest lake in Mizoram is Rid Dil, but is in Burma.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>According to legend, there were two sisters who had a cruel stepmother, who persuaded her husband to rid of them. The father killed the younger sister in a forest. The older sister Rih-i found her decapitated sister and was inconsolable. A good spirit known as Lasi found her and revealed to her a magical tree having a single leaf with which Rih-i used to revive her sister back to life. To quench the thirst of her younger sister, Rih-i turned herself into a small pool of water using the same leaf. Later, Rih-i was compelled to change herself into a white mithun, and wandered around in search of a safe place. Her urine formed rih-note (smaller lakes) wherever she went. It is believed that such lakes can still be found in the Vawmlu Range, Zur forest near the village Natchhawng, a place above Bochung village; the area of Khawthlir village, all of which are in Myanmar. She wandered to Sanzawl village, followed the river Run. But the demon spirit of the river threatened to suck her dry. She migrated westward into Mizoram but found even the valley of Champhai unsuitable. A little further southeast she found the present location, and the lake became Rih Dil.</p><br>
<h2>Transportation</h2><br>
<p>Rih Dil is difficult to access due to its remote location. In Burma, travelers may use a bus service from Yangon to Monywa in Sagaing Division, but from there they get transferred to a 33-seat mini-bus, which is more compatible with the tricky roads of Chin State. Visitors from India can enter from the Indo-Myanmar border gate through Champhai, from where it is 22 km. They pay gate-pass fees of Rs. 10 for a person and go directly to the Rih Lake by public buses.</p><br>
<p>Temple Butte, in the Grand Canyon, Arizona, USA is a prominence below the East Rim. The butte lies on the west bank of the south-flowing Colorado River. The outfall from the Little Colorado River, draining from the Painted Desert to the east and southeast, is about 2-mi upstream.</p><br>
<p>Temple Butte is 5,308 ft in elevation. It is the historical site of some wreckage of the 1956 Grand Canyon mid-air collision. It was first thought that smoke from Temple Butte, was due to a lightning strike fire, but later was found to be the result of the mid-air collision.</p><br>
<h2>Trails</h2><br>
<p>The Tanner Trail from Desert View, Arizona down to the Colorado River, follows the west ridgeline of Tanner Canyon, and has numerous views looking due-north to Temple Butte. The trail ends at a viewpoint on the upper surfaces of a Redwall Limestone ridge. The Redwall Limestone is seen prominently below the East Rim, and is the cliff-forming shelf upon which the redbeds of the Supai Group accumulate.</p><br>
<h2>Geology</h2><br>
<p>The prominence of Temple Butte is composed of the Toroweap Formation, and below it, the tan or white, cross-bedded (fossil sand-dunes) of the Coconino Sandstone. The Coconino is a cliff-forming unit. The Hermit Formation and Supai Group "redbeds" below begin the base of the butte, as the slope-forming geological units.</p><br>
<p>The east strike (section) of the Butte Fault is on the west side of Temple Butte. The west section of the Butte Fault is the East Kaibab Monocline. The Butte Fault sections are north-south trending, and are part of the uplift of the Kaibab Plateau.</p><br>
<h2>Access</h2><br>
<p>Desert View is the closest paved route site to Temple Butte viewpoints. It is located on the East Rim, and is about 20-mi east of Grand Canyon Village, on the East Rim Road, (Arizona State Route 64). Desert View is also 32-mi west of USA 89, by way of Arizona 64.</p><br>
<h3>Observation viewpoints</h3><br>
<p>Temple Butte can be viewed from the south at East Rim, Grand Canyon viewpoints in the vicinity of Desert View, Arizona. Lipan Point, Desert View Point, and to the south Hollenback Point have views due-north into the Grand Canyon. About 5-mi north of Desert View Point by unimproved road, or hiking is Comanche Point, a distance of 5-mi south-southeast of Temple Butte.</p><br>
<p>An unimproved route, going north from Desert View, about 12 to 14 mi long ends at Cape Solitude; the point is adjacent the south canyon outfall of the Little Colorado River and canyon, with the Colorado River. Temple Butte is 2.5-mi west.</p><br>
<p>Andrews Tavern is an historic building located in Spotsylvania County, Virginia. The original building was constructed for Samuel Andrews in 1815. Around 1848, a frame wing was added to the brick structure for a tavern. Though the wing was added to the original residence, there is no interior connection between the two.</p><br>
<p>The tavern is an example of Federal provincial architecture.</p><br>
<p>In 1778, the county seat of Spotsylvania County was moved to Andrews Tavern area which was a central location in the county. The county seat remained at Andrews Tavern until it was moved to its present location at Spotsylvania Court House in 1839.</p><br>
<p>Since the construction of the building, it has served a number of purposes including United States Post Office (1842–1862) and, during the American Civil War, Confederate post office (1862–1865). During his ownership of the building, Samuel Andrews was postmaster for the governments of both the Confederate States of America and the United States.</p><br>
<p>In 1885, the building once again housed a post office. As of 1999, Andrews Tavern was a private residence.</p><br>
<p>The property has been designated as a Virginia Historic Landmark and was added to the National Register of Historic Places in July 1976.</p><br>
<p>Bloomsbury Farm  was an 18th-century timbered framed house, one of the oldest privately owned residences in Spotsylvania County, Virginia. The house was originally built by the Robinson family sometime between 1785 and 1790. It was architecturally significant for its eighteenth-century construction methods and decorative elements. The surrounding location is also significant as the site of the last engagement between Confederate and Union forces in the Battle of Spotsylvania Courthouse on May 19, 1864. The farm was removed from the National Register in 2017.</p><br>
<h2>Design and construction</h2><br>
<p>The house at Bloomsbury Farm began as a late 18th century, single-pile (only one room between the front façade and the rear walls), two-story house. In the early 1800s, the layout of the house was changed when a central hallway was created. Bloomsbury is of braced frame construction. The framing used for the house was hewn and pit-sawn beams and rafters. Wrought nails, hand-hammered from iron, were used as fasteners in the original building. The interior of the walls were filled with brick nogging. The house has two exterior-end chimneys of brick laid in Flemish-bond pattern. The foundation is fieldstone and uses dragon beams to support the east end of the first floor summer beam.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Benjamin Robinson inherited the land on which Bloomsbury Farm is located and built the house sometime between the time he obtained the land and his death in 1790. The farm remained with his widow and then their descendants until 1854, when it was sold to Clement Harris. During the time that Harris owned the farm, it produced 4,500 lb of tobacco along with wheat, Indian corn, and oats. The farm remained in the possession of the Harris family until 1883 when it was sold by Thomas Harris to Charles and Charlotte Phillips. Harris repurchased the land again in 1888. In 1913 the property was sold to a holding company and, in 1917, the farm was acquired by Robert Purvis. James McGee bought the land in 1927 and Bloomsbury became a dairy farm.</p><br>
<p>McGee and his family sold milk as the Bloomsbury Sanitary Dairy, selling raw Grade A milk in Fredericksburg, Virginia, until 1937 when they switched to selling bulk cans of milk. The family continued in the dairy business until 1966 when the Jersey cattle were sold.</p><br>
<h2>Battle of Harris Farm</h2><br>
<p>On May 19, 1864, Bloomsbury Farm was the site of the Harris Farm Engagement (also called the Battle of Harris Farm), during which General Ewells Confederate soldiers attacked Brig. Gen. Tylers Union artillery division near the farm. This engagement, the last major action of the Battle of Spotsylvania Court House, ended when General Ewell&#39;s forces withdrew in the evening. During the fighting, the house was used as a field hospital. In the course of the battle, over 2000 soldiers were killed or wounded. In 1901, a monument dedicated to the memory of the fallen soldiers of the 1st Massachusetts Heavy Artillery was erected on the site.</p><br>
<p>Agroha, locally known as Ther, is an archaeological site, located in Agroha in Hisar district of India. It was once the capital of Agrasena.</p><br>
<h2>Location</h2><br>
<p>The mounds are located about 1.5 km from the town of Agroha, 20 km from Hisar city and 190 km from New Delhi in Hisar district of Haryana, India. It lies on National Highway 10.</p><br>
<h2>Rediscovery and excavation</h2><br>
<p>The excavations first started in the year 1888-89 under C.T. Rogers. It restarted in the year 1978-79 by Archaeological Department of Haryana under the supervision of J.S. Khatri and Acharya.</p><br>
<h2>Mythology</h2><br>
<p>Members of the Agrawal caste claim that the archaeological findings are related to their legendary founder — the king Agrasena, whose capital is said to have been at Agroha. The Agrawal organizations such as Akhil Bharatiya Agrawal Sammelan and Agroha Vikas Trust have supported archaeological research at the site.</p><br>
<h2>Historical significance</h2><br>
<p>According to the official website of Hisar, the excavations at Agroha belong to the period from 3rd-4th century B.C. to 13th-14th century A.D. Defense wall, shrine cells and residential houses can be observed in the mound.</p><br>
<h2>Notable artifacts</h2><br>
<p>Around seven thousand artifacts have been recovered during the excavations.</p><br>
<h3>Coins</h3><br>
<p>Silver and bronze coins belonging to different periods have been found at the site. They belong to Roman, Kushana, Yaudheya and Gupta empire. Language used is Prakrit.</p><br>
<h3>Seals</h3><br>
<p>A large number of seals have also been found. They are inscribed with words like Pitradutt, " Sadhu Vridhasya", "Shamkar Malasya", "Madrsya", etc.</p><br>
<h3>Others</h3><br>
<p>Besides a large number of stone sculptures, iron and copper implements and beads of semi-precious stones have also been found.</p><br>
<p>The Street House Anglo-Saxon cemetery is an Anglo-Saxon burial ground, dating to the second half of the 7th century AD, that was discovered at Street House Farm near Loftus, in the unitary authority of Redcar and Cleveland, England. Monuments dating back as far as 3300 BC are located in the vicinity of the cemetery, which was discovered after aerial photography revealed the existence of an Iron Age rectangular enclosure. The excavations, carried out between 2005 and 2007, revealed over a hundred graves dating from the 7th century AD and the remains of several buildings. An array of jewellery and other artefacts was found, including the jewels once worn by a young high-status Anglo-Saxon woman who had been buried on a bed and covered by an earth mound.</p><br>
<p>The woman&#39;s identity is unknown, but the artefacts and the layout of the cemetery are similar to finds in the east and south-east of England. There are contradictory indications of whether the occupants of the cemetery were Christian or pagan, as signs of both traditions are present. It perhaps represents a fusion of the two traditions during the "Conversion Period" when Christianity was taking hold among the Anglo-Saxons but pagan rituals had not yet been displaced, even among Christians. Archaeologists have suggested that the woman and at least some of the people buried around her may have migrated from the south, where bed burials were more common. They may all have been buried together within the space of a single generation, after which the cemetery was abandoned. The finds were acquired by Kirkleatham Museum, Redcar, in 2009 and have been on display there since 2011.</p><br>
<h2>Background</h2><br>
<p>The vicinity of Street House Farm, located on Upton Hill to the north-east of the town of Loftus, has been known to archaeologists for some decades as an area of interest. An Early Neolithic long cairn and mortuary structure dating to about 3300 BC, on which a round barrow was built in the Early Bronze Age, was excavated over the course of three seasons between 1979 and 1981. In 1984, the archaeologist Blaise Vyner discovered the remains of an enigmatic structure that he dubbed the "Street House Wossit" (a contraction of "what-is-it"). This was a segmented circle of 56 wooden posts built around 2200 BC. In the centre of the structure, which was approximately 8 m wide, were two D-shaped posts encircled by a raised stone bank. After a short period of usage the Wossit was dismantled and the posts burned. Its purpose is unknown but it is likely to have had some kind of religious or cultic significance.</p><br>
<h2>Excavations</h2><br>
<p>One of those involved in the 1979–81 dig, archaeologist Steve Sherlock, decided to return to the site after aerial photographs revealed the presence of a rectangular Iron Age enclosure in the vicinity of the Bronze Age monuments. Initial excavations were carried out during ten days in September 2004. It was thought initially that the site was purely Iron Age or perhaps Romano-British. A more in-depth excavation was carried out in July 2005 after a geophysical survey revealed the existence of a large roundhouse, dating from the Iron Age, in the centre of the enclosure. The work revealed three roundhouses, several Iron Age ditches and a series of pits that were evidently graves. The latter came as a complete surprise and were found to date from the Anglo-Saxon period. Various artefacts dating to between 650 and 700 AD were excavated but no bones were recovered, as the acidic soil had destroyed any organic material long ago. Thirty graves were found during the initial excavation.</p><br>
<p>In 2006, the archaeologists returned to search for the settlement that they believed was associated with the graves. There are examples elsewhere, such as at Garton Green Lane Crossing in the Yorkshire Wolds, of 7th-century graves associated with prehistoric monuments, and it was initially thought that the Street House graves were a similar example. However, the excavation uncovered another twelve graves. It was realised that the cemetery was far larger than first thought, so the following year an archaeological survey of the entire site was attempted. A total of 109 graves was found by the end of the 2007 dig, forming a complex monument laid out in a unique square fashion around a central mound, a bed burial and a building that had possibly served as a mortuary.</p><br>
<p>Further excavations were carried out in 2010 and 2011 to examine a Neolithic cairn and a Bronze Age mound found near the cemetery, as well as to investigate two areas within the Iron Age enclosure. In 2012, a new excavation found the ruins of a sizeable Roman villa dating to around 370 AD, which had possibly been used by an important Romano-British chieftain. It was located only about 100 m south of the Saxon graves and would have been part of an agricultural estate.</p><br>
<h2>Layout of the graves</h2><br>
<p>The cemetery consists of neat lines of graves arranged on an east–west alignment, covering a nearly square area of about 36 x, in a layout not seen in any other known Anglo-Saxon cemetery. The enclosure within which the cemetery was laid out was many centuries older, dating to about 200 BC; the establishment of a cemetery within its boundaries was probably intended to serve as a deliberate link to the past. It would still have been clearly visible in Saxon times. The layout of the cemetery seem to have consciously reflected that of the earlier enclosure, with its apparent main entrance aligned with that of the enclosure.</p><br>
<p>Most of the graves were laid out in a highly ordered fashion with a double row on the north and south sides. Each grave was set 2.5 m apart on an east–west axis and 2 m apart north to south. None were intercut. They were arranged in a pattern that formed a square enclosure, with a gap in the southern side forming a main entrance and another smaller gap on the eastern side forming a secondary entrance or exit. The degree of precision visible in the layout strongly suggests that the cemetery was planned in advance.</p><br>
<p>There are several groups of graves, numbering around 22 per cent of the total, that do not fit into the overall square plan of the cemetery. A few of these seem to have been older burials, possibly Romano-British, but the others may have been laid out by different groups of people in Saxon times. The most notable of these "non-standard" burials is that of the woman dubbed the "Saxon Princess" near the very centre of the enclosure. Although her burial has attracted the most attention for the quality of its finds, it may not have been the most important grave in the cemetery. A second larger mound stood a short distance away, partly surrounded by a ring ditch. No burial was found within and the mound has been interpreted as a mausoleum or memorial to an important individual. It is noteworthy that the "Saxon Princess" and a number of burials in the cemetery&#39;s north-east quadrant were arranged in an arc around the mound, suggesting that it may have been seen as the focal point of the cemetery.</p><br>
<p>The discovery of the graves east–west alignment has prompted suggestions that the cemetery reflected Christian tradition, although the evidence overall is contradictory about whether the occupants were Christians. The individual graves were fairly uniform in size, usually measuring 2 m long, 0.8 m wide and in their original form about 0.6 m deep. They had a rectangular plan with rounded corners and a flat base. The bodies were not interred in coffins; the graves occupants were buried in their clothes, accompanied by various items that they owned or were given as tokens by mourners. Although none of the bodies have survived it is thought from their size that most of the graves were intended for women, laid out fully extended. A substantial number are too small for an adult of normal height to have been laid out in such a way and, judging from analogous Saxon graves found elsewhere in England, it is thought that these might have contained crouched burials. The two different methods of burial – crouched versus fully extended – may therefore indicate some difference in ethnic affiliations or political or religious identities.</p><br>
<p>Some of the graves are marked by plain triangular stones set at one end. These are not carved or inscribed with names as in Christian cemeteries, but are similar to markers found in pagan cemeteries. Some graves are interrupted by stakeholes cut into them, possibly indicating the presence of wooden poles that might have served as markers or supported wooden structures within the graves. This is unusual in the north of England, though comparable examples have been found in Kent in the south-east.</p><br>
<p>In addition to the graves, several buildings stood within the cemetery. A larger rectangular structure with an east-west alignment, identified from postholes left in the ground, stood on the east side. It has been interpreted as a chapel or shrine. A smaller grubenhaus – a type of sunken building – which is thought to have been used as a mortuary chapel was located close by in the central area of the cemetery. An Iron Age roundhouse had also once been located within the north-west quadrant but was no longer standing at the time the cemetery was laid out. All of these buildings would have stood on the crest of a ridge, and would have been especially prominent to travelers arriving from the south.</p><br>
<p>The cemetery seems to have been laid out on a single occasion and used for only a short time afterwards. It is thought that the mourners would have entered through the south side and assembled in the empty south-western area of the cemetery before proceeding to the shrine to carry out the burial rites. After interring the deceased in a grave they may have used the eastern entrance to leave the cemetery. Alternatively, different groups of people may have used the two entrances, perhaps reflecting the fact that some of the graves do not fit into the overall square plan and may therefore belong to a different group.</p><br>
<h2>Artefacts</h2><br>
<p>64 individual graves, comprising 59 per cent of the total in the cemetery, were found to contain artefacts. Certain types of artefact can help to identify the gender of the occupants; male graves, for instance, tend to contain weapons and tools, while female ones are associated with jewellery, shears and chatelaines (belt hooks) which were used to suspend keys or small tools. 34 of the graves contained such gender-specific goods, of which 19 were associated with females and 15 with males. The female graves seem to have been predominantly located in the north and west of the cemetery and the males in the south and east. It is possible that the paired graves may have been those of spouses, a pattern that is apparent from Saxon cemeteries elsewhere in the country.</p><br>
<p>15 of the graves contained beads and items of ironwork were found in 25 graves. A seax (a type of short sword with a blade on one edge) was found in grave 29 and was the only weapon found in the cemetery. The discovery of such weapons as grave goods is extremely rare, as their value meant that they were typically passed on from father to son rather than being buried with a person. It originally measured about 55 cm long but had broken into four pieces, and part of the pommel and handle also survived. Its blade had been decorated with a punched pattern along the top edge. Smaller domestic knives were found in 19 graves as well as other items made of iron such as belt buckles and sets of keys. In grave 81, two whetstones for sharpening knives were discovered along with the knives themselves, one resting on top of each whetstone.</p><br>
<p>A variety of jewellery, beads, and charms was also found. 100 beads in total were recovered from 16 graves, though only two had more than 10 beads. The small number of beads found in the remaining 14 graves is indicative of how styles had changed; in the 6th century it was customary for women to wear up to 100 relatively plain beads at a time in the form of necklaces, but by the mid-7th century, the fashion was for a small number of high-quality beads which may have been attached with wire or carried in a bag. A very unusual discovery was made in grave 21 – the remnants of a necklace comprising eight beads and two Iron Age gold coins minted by the Corieltauvi tribe of modern Lincolnshire some time between 15–45 AD, before the Roman conquest of Britain. Holes had been drilled in the coins, which were more than 600 years old by the time they were buried, to convert them into items of jewellery. Their excellent condition suggests that they had not been used for long, or at all, as currency; it is possible that they had been part of a hoard buried shortly after they were minted and were rediscovered during Saxon times. The discovery of Roman coins in a Saxon grave of this period is unique to the Street House cemetery. It is likely that they were valued because of the cross-shaped designs on the coins&#39; reverse.</p><br>
<p>An elaborate gold pendant was found in grave 10 along with three beads; all four had apparently been worn together on a chain or a thread, which did not survive. Although it is small – only 27 mm in diameter – it is intricately decorated with a gold filigree in the shape of figures of eight (though the similarity in form to the numeral is merely coincidental). Its design is typical of jewellery made after 650 AD and comparable examples have been found elsewhere in Yorkshire. In grave 70, a gold pendant measuring 44 mm in diameter was found during the 2007 excavation. It is decorated with elaborate filigrees like the brooch but it also incorporates four circular settings, each of which was inset with a red gemstone, though only two of the stones have survived. Several beads were found alongside the pendant and seem to have been part of the necklace of which it was a part.</p><br>
<h2>The "Saxon Princess" bed burial</h2><br>
<p>The most important grave, and the most spectacular set of artefacts, was found near the centre of the cemetery. Grave 42 was a deep, wide pit in which a high-status individual was buried on top of a wooden bed with iron fittings. The body lying on the bed was most likely that of a woman of very high-ranking noble descent, possibly royalty, as the quantity and quality of the jewellery found in the grave is indicative of a woman ranking at the top of Anglo-Saxon society. Such burials are highly unusual; only a dozen are known in the whole of the UK, and the one at Street House is the most northerly known.</p><br>
<p>Although nothing remains of either the body or the bed, surviving artefacts and the 56 pieces of ironwork that held the bed together have enabled the burial to be reconstructed in considerable detail. The bed was made from ash wood, held together with a variety of iron plates, cleats, staples, nails, stays, and decorative scrolls. It measured 1.8 x and may once have been roofed with an ornamental awning or canvas, perhaps made of cloth draped over timber posts. Traces of mineralised cloth and either grass or reed were found still attached to some of the nails, indicating the possible nature of the mattress. Two pieces of ironwork showed signs of repair and reuse, suggesting that the bed had been in use some time before the burial and was not specially made for the interment. This raises the possibility that the bed was either that of the deceased woman or a significant bed of some other person. It may have been dismantled elsewhere, brought to the cemetery and reassembled and repaired so that it could be used for the burial.</p><br>
<p>The jewellery consists of three gold pendants, two glass beads, one gold wire bead, and a fragment of a jet hair pin. The pendants and beads all seem to have been strung together, probably forming a necklace that was in place around the neck of the body. Two of the pieces consist of gold cabochon pendants inset with jewels, while the third is a very elaborate shield-shaped jewel inlaid with 57 red garnets and a larger scallop-shaped gem in the centre. The garnets rest on a thin layer of gold leaf to reflect the light and increase their luminosity. It may have been created from recycled older pieces of jewellery, as the size, shape and thickness of the individuals garnet are all different.</p><br>
<p>The quality of the piece is outstanding and comparable to that of the artefacts found at the famous Anglo-Saxon cemetery at Sutton Hoo in Suffolk. Its design is unique and has no known parallels elsewhere in Anglo-Saxon jewelcrafting; its creator must have been one of the best craftworkers in the country at the time. Its shape is a significant link with early Christianity. The scallop had long been associated with love, fertility and birth and was a symbol of the classical goddesses Aphrodite and her Roman counterpart Venus, who was said to have floated ashore on a scallop shell (as in Sandro Botticellis famous depiction of The Birth of Venus). By the 4th century, however, Christians had adopted the scallop as a symbol of rebirth through baptism and life as a journey towards a heavenly reunion with God. It came to be particularly associated with pilgrimages and was later adopted as a pilgrims badge.</p><br>
<p>An analysis conducted using X-ray fluorescence has found that the pendant was made from a highly debased gold alloy, with only 37% of the alloy consisting of gold and the remainder consisting of silver with some copper. It is likely that the gold came from melted-down coins of the Merovingian dynasty of Francia. The Frankish currency underwent a similar debasing at around this time. The link with Francia is illustrative of the trading and cultural links that existed between Anglo-Saxon England and continental Europe at the time.</p><br>
<p>A grave found a short distance away also contained jewellery, including a gold pendant, silver brooch, and glass beads. It is thought that the occupant may have had a close connection with the woman in the bed burial – perhaps a relative or a lady-in-waiting who was buried with her mistress.</p><br>
<h2>Interpretations and historical context</h2><br>
<p>At the time of the cemetery&#39;s use in the latter part of the 7th century, Britain was divided into a number of kingdoms ruled by different ethnic groups – the native Picts in the north (in what is now Scotland), the native Britons in the west of what is now England, Wales and south-western Scotland, and the immigrant Angles, Saxons, and Jutes in the east and south of modern England and south-eastern Scotland. Until the early 7th century, the north-east of England and parts of Scotland were ruled by two Saxon kingdoms: Deira in modern Yorkshire, and Bernicia from north of the River Tees to the Firth of Forth. By the time of the burials the two kingdoms had merged to form the powerful kingdom of Northumbria.</p><br>
<p>There were considerable connections – political, trading, and cultural – between the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms and this is demonstrated in the burial ground found at Street House. The practice of burying people in beds seems to have been very uncommon in the north; most of the bed burials found so far have been in southern England, in Cambridgeshire, Essex, Suffolk, and Wiltshire. Several of the brooches and beads found in the graves are thought to have come from Kent and some of the jewellery and beadwork has strong parallels with finds from East Anglia. The Iron Age gold coins found in one grave came from a tribe that lived in the East Midlands, which suggests that their owner, likewise, was not local.</p><br>
<p>The identity of the woman in the bed is not known, but the archaeologists who excavated the site have suggested that she was "a female member of the local aristocracy, probably a princess and an outsider, whose personal status was strong enough to act as a catalyst for the site" and that her companions were similarly "a group of people of high status from outside the region." Average life expectancy at the time was short – only 32 years for men and 28 years for women – so it is possible that the cemetery was used exclusively by members of the "princesss" community and ceased to be used when the last member died. This would fit with its short period of usage, perhaps only 30 years or so, judging from the age of the artefacts found during the excavations. Steve Sherlock, the sites discoverer, believes that she was buried first and that the other graves were dug around hers afterward. Next to her grave is a probable male grave, to which it may be linked. The close proximity of the graves and their offset from the rest of the graves in the cemetery raises questions about whether the occupants were related.</p><br>
<p>The cemetery provides some hints to the woman&#39;s local connections and religious affiliations. She was buried around or soon after the time when St. Hilda of Whitby was active in the region, first at Hartlepool Abbey, then at Whitby Abbey, which was founded in 657. The woman may well have known St. Hilda, who came from a similar aristocratic background and had lived for a while in East Anglia, where bed burials were more common. It is unclear, however, whether the woman was also a Christian. Features such as the typically Christian east-west orientation of the graves have been cited in support of a Christian affiliation, but on the other hand the cemetery was built on an ancient pagan site and there is no obvious reason why a Christian princess would not have been buried at Whitby alongside fellow Christians. As Christianity was spreading across the region at this time, the possible Christian features of the cemetery could be due simply to local social convention favouring some Christian styles in burial rituals, even for non-Christians. Steve Sherlock considers the bed burial to be "stridently pagan, a sort of rare, female equivalent of ship burials, as she is laid out on a vehicle to deliver her to the afterworld," however, and he suggests that she may have been the centre of a pagan cult that was active alongside local Christians.</p><br>
<p>Others have argued that the cemetery represents a fusion of Christian and pagan Saxon customs. It was not until the end of the 7th century that the practice of burying people in consecrated ground around a church became the norm. There are examples of known Christians being buried in an ostensibly pagan fashion, as was the case for the late 7th century Kentish princess Eormengyth, sister of the abbess of Minster-in-Thanet. She was buried in a traditional tumulus a mile east of her sisters minster. John Blair argues that the Church in early Saxon England may have tolerated Christians being given pagan burial rites due to the Christianising&#39; effect this would have had on a pagan site. This would have been consistent with the advice given by Pope Gregory the Great in 601 that Saxon shrines should be converted to Christian use, rather than being destroyed, and that pagan festivals and rites should be converted into Christian ones. On this interpretation, the cemetery may symbolise the continuity between the pagan past and the increasingly Christianised present.</p><br>
<h2>Conservation, acquisition and display</h2><br>
<p>The discovery was announced on 20 November 2007 and several of the finds were displayed to the press at Kirkleatham Museum near Redcar. Ashok Kumar, the local Member of Parliament at the time, lent his support to a campaign to keep the artefacts in Redcar and Cleveland, saying: "It&#39;s essential they are kept in this area at Kirkleatham Museum and not merely deposited at a museum in London where there would be no guarantee of permanent display. I... want to see these treasures kept here so local people and schoolchildren can view them as part of their local heritage and as an aid to their understanding of the past." The Culture Minister, Margaret Hodge, confirmed in a House of Commons debate that the British Museum would not object to Kirkleatham acquiring the finds.</p><br>
<p>The Teesside coroner held an inquest on 12 October 2008 that found that the finds were treasure trove under the terms of the Treasure Act 1996. The rules of treasure trove require that a panel of experts determine the market value of a find, half of which is paid to the finder and the other half to the landowner. However, the landowner at Street House waived his share because he wanted to ensure that a local museum would be able to purchase the artefacts. The Heritage Lottery Fund provided Kirkleatham Museum with a grant of £274,000 to fund the purchase and create a new Anglo-Saxon gallery to display the artefacts.</p><br>
<p>The finds were purchased by the museum in April 2009 and underwent conservation by specialists at Durham University and York Archaeological Trust. Using tools of the Anglo-Saxon period, a replica of the bed was created for the exhibition by Richard Darrah, an expert in early woodwork, and blacksmith Hector Cole, a crafter of medieval-style ironwork. A short film about the princess was made at the Anglo-Saxon museum at Bede&#39;s World in Jarrow with a narration by Stephen Tompkinson. Prior to the opening of the exhibition at Kirkleatham, the finds were put on display for five days in May 2011 at Loftus Town Hall, where they attracted nearly 1,700 visitors.</p><br>
<p>The exhibition at Kirkleatham has proved extremely popular; by October 2011 it had already attracted more than 28,000 visitors in only four months. In April 2012 the exhibition attracted further praise when the museum won the prestigious Renaissance Museum title at the annual Journal and Arts Council Awards.</p><br>
<p>Firoz Shah Palace Complex is located in front of Hisar Bus Stand in the city of Hisar in Haryana, India. It was built by Firuz Shah Tughlaq in 1354 AD.</p><br>
<p>Jahaj Kothi Museum, named after George Thomas, is located inside Firoz Shah Palace Complex and maintained by Archaeological Survey of India.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The palace, known as Hisar-i-Firuza, located at a strategic point where the old Delhi Multan Road route branched to Khorasan (historic region which lies in northeast of Iran), was built by Firoz Shah Tughlaq in 1354. The construction was completed in 1356. The palace consists of a mosque, a Diwan-e-Aam, a palace for his wife, underground apartments and a granary. The restoration work of the palace started in 1924 and have since been gradually renovated until recent times. The complex has been declared as a Centrally Protected Monument by Archaeological Survey of India.</p><br>
<h2>Architecture</h2><br>
<p>The artwork in the fort is the synthesis of Islamic architecture and Indian architecture. However, the mosque was built in Seljuk architecture.The palace is built of red sandstone. The material used in the construction of the fort was taken from the destroyed Hindu temples.</p><br>
<h2>Gates</h2><br>
<p>Originally, the complex had one royal entrance and four main gates.</p><br>
<h3>Shahi Darwaza</h3><br>
<p>The Shahi Darwaza is an east-facing still-standing entrance to the palace, called so because Shahi Darwaza in Persian means royal gate as it was reserved for the royal family. As seen, this roughly 7 meter tall single-story arched gateway, with small built-in cells inside for the guards on both sides, still serves as the main entrance to the current monument.</p><br>
<h3>Talaqi Gate</h3><br>
<p>The Talagi gate is a west-facing gate with access to ancient Agroha Mound and Sirsa, still-standing facing the current main bus stand of Hisar city. Associated bastions with slanted narrow niches to shoot arrows at attacking enemy armies still exist.</p><br>
<h3>Nagauri Gate</h3><br>
<p>The Nagauri gate was a south-facing now-demolished gate, with access to Nagaur and on to Jodhpur in Rajasthan via Siwani, Jhumpa Khurd, Rajgarh and Churu. It was demolished by the Bansi Lal government to widen the entrance to the market. British Raj had added a tall 2 story clock tower on top of it, now it is all gone but the site is still known as nagori gate.</p><br>
<h3>Mori gate</h3><br>
<p>The Mori gate was an east-facing now-vanished gate where a now-vanished water channel entered the fort complex via a niche (Hindi: mori or hole) in the fort bastion to supply the water. it provided access to Multan (Pakistan) - Kandhar (Afghanistan) - Mashhad (Iran) - Ashgabat (Turkmenistan). The gate is long gone and no sign exists. The location of this used to be the current ramp and road between the fort complex and auto market.</p><br>
<h3>Delhi gate</h3><br>
<p>The Delhi gate, located at current, was an east-facing now-vanished gate that was on the path leading to Delhi on Delhi Multan Road. Its location used to be near current Gandhi statue inside the crowded market.</p><br>
<h2>Royal Place</h2><br>
<p>Royal place is the rectangular three-storied stone masonry(two above-ground and one story underground) building of the fort where the king resided with his entourage. In the past it also two more floor above the current structure, the pillar ruins of third above-ground floor still lie horizontally on roof of the current structure, those pillars held a two-story now-vanished wood-stone structure. It lies in the north-west corner. It is a two-story structure above ground with underground quarters. It is built of rubble masonry and lime mortar. The upper story has stone pillar taken from the destroyed Jain and Hindu temples from and around Agroha Mound. The place building is between one and three cell deep on north, west and east side bit it is several cells deep on the south side where bulk of the structure lies.</p><br>
<p>In the extreme north-west is the three storied above-ground staircase that also leads to one story underground to connect to the tehkhana cells.</p><br>
<p>North and west side of this two-story complex with arched passages are built into the fort&#39;s bastion with no windows on north and west side for the security reasons. West and south sides of the structure were renovated by the Archaeological Survey of India and still survives with flat roof and arches gateway and passages.</p><br>
<p>The north side of this structure is in ruin and only the remains of the ground story without the roof survive.</p><br>
<p>The west side of this structure is in good condition with roof. The west side of the structure has underground tehkhana with hammam, has 2 doorways on ground level and 3 doorways on the second story opening into the central rectangular courtyard.</p><br>
<p>The south side, which is the longer side of the rectangular palace complex, has 7 doorways on ground level and 9 doorways on the second story opening into the central rectangular courtyard.</p><br>
<p>The east side of the two-storied rectangular building complex palace complex, is also in ruins without roof, this side is adjacent to the stables to its east.</p><br>
<h3>Palace Watch tower Staircase</h3><br>
<p>Extreme north and west side of this two-story Royal place complex lies a three-story above-ground and one-story underground watch tower that doubled as staircase connecting all stories of the place as well as serving as a corner passage between north and west side of the building. This is tallest structure in the entire complex.</p><br>
<h3>Diwan-e-khas</h3><br>
<p>Diwan-e-khas is a central courtyard inside a two-storied rectangular Royal place structure. This courtyard also served as open hall of private audience.</p><br>
<h3>Tehkhana</h3><br>
<p>Royal place haas an underground complex and two stories above aground with a central courtyard which also served as diwan-e-khas or the hall of private audience. The underground apartments used for sleeping to escape the summer heat and evidence by the presence of an underground hammam or bath.</p><br>
<h3>Royal Bath</h3><br>
<p>Hammam is the bath located inside the underground tehkhana below the royal palace.</p><br>
<h2>Stables</h2><br>
<p>Stables are semi-underground structure adjacent to the Tehkhana structure, it lies to the east of main rectangular Royal place building between the place building and Jahaj Kothi Museum, it was used as stables for the horses and other animals.</p><br>
<h2>Diwan-e-Aam</h2><br>
<p>Immediately to the right of Royal gate is Diwan-e-Aam or the Hall for Public Audience. It is a north-west L-shaped Liwan, roughly 5 to 6 meter high, vaulted inside roof with flat-top building with open courtyard. There is lat ki masjid to the east within its courtyard with the Ashoka pillar (lat) in the middle of the courtyard and a L-shaped ablution pond in the south corner of the courtyard. This structure is built with red sandstone pillars taken from the destroyed Jain and Hindu temples, most likely from and near Agroha Mound site.</p><br>
<p>There are three rows red sand stone Hindu pillars with total 50 pillars in the longer western arm of the L-shaped Liwan hall. The longer western arm of the L-shaped Liwan hall has 18 vaults inside the roof which is flat on the top. The front row is built with 10 pairs of double pillars (total 20 pillars) facing east opening into the court yard forming seven doorways, one row of single pillars in the middle of Liwan hall (total 10 pillars). Another row built into the back wall to the west has total 10 pillars, each chamber in this wall back wall has three niches build in red sand stone on the lower half, one outer rectangle niche, two arched niches inside. The upper portion of Liwan is built with rubble masonry covered with white lime mortar. One of the pillar near Takht-i-shahi platform has Hindu inscription in the Brahmic scripts. The flat roof of the longer arm of Liwan is topped with two false domes, one each on its north and south side.</p><br>
<p>The shorter north facing arm of the L-shaped Liwan hall has three valuted chambers on 3 pillars of Hindu temples in the front opening south into the courtyard and three pillars built in the back wall at the north side. These pillars support the flat-form0the-top roof with 3 vaults inside.</p><br>
<p>In the north-west corner of the L-shaped Liwan hall, there is a raised Takht-i-shahi or Muluk khana platform on top of four smaller red stone pillars of Hindu design inside this Liwan hall where the throne of the king used to be, this can be reached by 5 red sand stone steps, under this platform is a dried up well. This platform also has a north-west facing qibla wall (towards Kaaba in Mecca) in the mihrab.</p><br>
<h2>Lat ki Masjid</h2><br>
<p>On the South-East end of the complex is the square Lat ki Masjid made of red sandstone taken from the destroyed Hindu and Jain temples, the pillars have inscribed Hindu design and doors have Hindu temple style chabutra. There is one door each in four directions, there is a stone jali (perforated latticed stone screen) above each door. The roof has stone brackets that can be seen from outside of the building. The roof is altered with later-era addition of a brick wall. The rofo inside is valulted and flat roof on top has a single lime plastered dome.</p><br>
<p>To the South of this lies a rubble masonry built above-ground pond with under ground narrow passage connecting to the basement of the Lat ki masjid.</p><br>
<h3>Architecture</h3><br>
<p>Unlike other structures inside the complex, the mosque was built using Hindu-Seljuk architecture. Qibla has been carved inside the prayer hall of adjacent L-shaped Liwan hall.</p><br>
<h3>Structures</h3><br>
<p>It is a small one-story one-domed mosque carved in red sandstone. The mosque is divided into three parts: the central dome, the pillar and the prayer hall. An L-shaped ablution tank is also located on the south of the mosque only couple of feet away. To the south west the square mosque building has a built-in exterior staircase leading to the roof. The mosque also has a narrow underground staircase in its northern wall, leading south few feet, re-emerging to the south-western edge of L-shaped ablution tank in the courtyard.</p><br>
<h3>Hisar Ashokan Pillar</h3><br>
<p>The mosque got its name from Lat, a column located on the North-East of its courtyard. The Lat was once a part of an Ashokan pillar, one of the rock-cut edicts of Ashoka dating to 250–232 BCE. This has been proved by the presence of the inscriptions in Brahmi script on the pillar, deciphered in 1837 by James Prinsep, an archaeologist, philologist, and official of the East India Company. The Ashokan pillar, likely taken from its nearby original location at Agroha Mound, was cut for the ease of transportation and rejoined in four portions here, the remaining bottom portions are at Fatehabad mosque. The four upper portions of the Ashokan pillar here are tapering registers with a finial topped by iron rod.</p><br>
<h2>Indus Valley Civilization mound</h2><br>
<p>Close to the mosque lies a mound which is believed to house the ruins of probably the Indus Valley Civilization.</p><br>
<h2>Bastions</h2><br>
<p>Underground apartments can be found inside the complex in good condition. A passage is embedded on the western wall of the palace leading to the terrace. Archer holes can still be observed in the bastion wall that used to be surrounded by now-filled a water-filled protective ditch.</p><br>
<h2>Gujri Mahal</h2><br>
<p>Gujri Mahal is the name of the palace built by Firoz Shah Tughlaq for his mistress Gujri. The palace is located outside the fort complex to east and was built as an outlying portion of it. Between the Gurjari mahal and the main fort complex there existed a now-vanished Islamic garden, which is now the location of modern-day Jindal park with a 207 feet tall Flag of India.</p><br>
<h3>History</h3><br>
<p>Gujri was the mistress of Firoz Shah Tughlaq. She was a local resident of Hisar. When he asked her to accompany him to the throne at Delhi, she refused. So, he built a palace for her in Hisar (city) and built his own palace complex around it.</p><br>
<h3>Architecture</h3><br>
<p>The palace was built using rubble and Mortar. Like other structures present inside the complex, this was also built using parts of destroyed temples as is visible from the pillars located inside the palace.</p><br>
<h3>Structures</h3><br>
<h4>Gurjari Mahal Building</h4><br>
<p>Only a small portion of the two-story palace with one underground level remains now. The palace is built on a rectangular platform that can be approached by a ramp leading to the upper level. The building has been declared as a Centrally Protected Monument by Archaeological Survey of India. The palace is closed for public. To the north, there used to be gardens, which no longer exist and houses modern have been built there.</p><br>
<h4>Baradari</h4><br>
<p>The most visible part of what now remains of the palace is the Baradari on the upper level, called so because of the presence of twelve doorways, three on each side. It was used for social gatherings. Four Hindu pillars are located inside the chamber to support the roof. These pillars were taken from the destroyed Hindu and Jain temples, most likely from Agroha Mound or nearby area.</p><br>
<h4>Underground Hammam</h4><br>
<p>There are three underground apartments located below the platform. One of them is a tank and it is believed that this tank served as a hammam or bath.</p><br>
<h4>Graves</h4><br>
<p>On the upper level, there are a total of nine graves, 5 of which are sarcophagi on an open-air higher platform (nearly 3 feet from bottom), two are sarcophagi on a separate nearby open-air lower platform (less than 1 foot from bottom) and two are brick shrines inside a brick structure that no longer has a roof. Total seven of them are sarcophagi while the other two are brick shrines. All of them belong to 17th or 18th century Mughal empire era.</p><br>
<h4>Secondary Apartment</h4><br>
<p>On the upper level, there is a small secondary apartment in the corner of the structure.</p><br>
<h2>Garden</h2><br>
<p>Originally, there was a garden in the north of the complex but it no longer exists, now there is Jindal park in its place that has a 207 feet tall flag of india installed by Naveen Jindal&#39;s Flag Foundation of India.</p><br>
<h2>Jahaj Kothi Museum</h2><br>
<p>Jahaj Kothi Museum, a later era building that was originally a Jain temple which was later used as residence by George Thomas, is located inside Firoz Shah Palace Complex and maintained by Archaeological Survey of India.</p><br>
<p>Nearby Haryana Rural Antique Museum is in Gandhi Bhawan, established by this unit, exhibits evolution of agriculture and vanishing antiques.</p><br>
<h2>Residence of Superintendent of Livestock Farm</h2><br>
<p>There is a large British raj era historic building within the complex, to the north east side, which was used as a residence for the superintendent of the Government Livestock Farm, Hisar (c. 1809).</p><br>
<p>Fairview is an historic home located near Fredericksburg, Virginia at 2020 Whitelake Drive. It is the largest of the historic homes in Spotsylvania County. The house was built in 1837 by Samuel Alsop, Jr. . Alsop was an architect and builder who designed a number of buildings in Spotsylvania including the Old Berea Church and Kenmore Woods , which he built for his daughter.</p><br>
<p>After building homes for his daughters, Fairview was designed and constructed for Alsop himself. The Federal-style home is double-pile construction (meaning that there are two rooms between the front façade and the rear wall of the house). The site on which the home was built was originally 1,200 acre. In the 1970s the land was subdivided for residences.</p><br>
<p>Fairview was added to the National Register of Historic Places in December 1993.</p><br>
<p>Kenmore, , is a historic house in Spotsylvania County, Virginia, United States. It was built in 1829 by Samuel Alsop, Jr.  for his daughter Ann Eliza and her husband, John M. Anderson. The home bears the same name as the home of Fielding and Betty Lewis  in nearby Fredericksburg, Virginia. To distinguish the houses, Kenmore in Spotsylvania County was renamed Kenmore Woods. Samuel Alsop, Jr. designed a number of homes in Spotsylvania County. In addition to Kenmore, he also designed and built "Oakley" for another daughter as well as his own home, "Fairview". In all, Alsop designed and built 10 homes.</p><br>
<h2>Design</h2><br>
<p>Begun in 1828 and finished in 1829, the design of the home is Federal-style. The house was built on 430 acre that Alsop purchased in 1821. The relatively modest-sized Kenmore is unusual for Alsop in that it was designed with a narrow central hallway and a spiral staircase.</p><br>
<p>Another unusual aspect of the house is the brickwork. On the front and south sides, bricks are laid in flemish bond pattern while the other sides are common bond. The present owners of the house suggest that the reason for this might be that the house sits on an interesection of two roads and, thus, visible from 2 sides.</p><br>
<p>The kitchen was originally an outbuilding – a structure built apart from the main house. It was common in Colonial times to separate the kitchen from the rest of the house because the kitchen was the working area of the household&#39;s slaves.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The house was sold in 1832 to Dr. Hubbard Minor who, in 1836, added an ell to the rear of the home and a gable end shed roof. The ell is now a sitting room. The character of the additions was Greek Revival.</p><br>
<p>The house was located at the intersection of major roads near Spotsylvania Courthouse. During the American civil war, the house was used by Colonel Walker of the Army of Northern Virginia as a headquarters during the Battle of Spotsylvania Courthouse in 1864.</p><br>
<p>Dr. Maxwell Harbin and his wife purchased the house in 1935 and changed the name of the home to Kenmore Woods because of the confusion with the home of George Washington&#39;s sister, Betty, in nearby Fredericksburg, Virginia. Sometime during the 1930s, a screened porch was added to the south side of the home. To create a passage from the house onto the porch, it was necessary to cut through four courses of brick. It was around this time that electricity and plumbing were added to the house.</p><br>
<p>Kenmore was added to the National Register of Historic Places in June 1993.</p><br>
<p>Molii Fishpond is located southeast of Kamehameha Highway between Kualoa and Johnson Roads, near Kaneohe, on the island of Oahu, in the USA state of Hawaii. The pond encompasses 125 acre The locale is part of the ahupuaa  of Hakipuu. The Molii pond is part of Kualoa Ranch. Tilapia, mullet and moi are found within the pond. Commercial fishing operations are contracted out.</p><br>
<p>Ancient Hawaiian fishponds were noted in the 1826 journal of William Ellis, the naturalist on James Cook&#39;s third voyage (1776–1779):</p><br>
<p>Molii, along with Huilua, Kahaluu and Heeia are the only four original Hawaiian fishponds remaining on Oahu. Fishponds were used by the ancient Hawaiians for ocean husbandry. Each pond had a set of sluices that controlled the seawater flow and the fish available in the pond for harvesting. Molii had five such sluices, and three of the sluices were still in place in 1972 when the pond was listed on the National Register of Historic Places listings in Oahu. This system of harvesting ocean catch was unique to Hawaii, and does not exist within other areas of ancient Polynesia. The 4,000 ft wall which partitions the pond from Kaneohe Bay dates back to the earliest Hawaiian settlement of the land, and is traditionally attributed to the Menehune of Hawaiian mythology. The craftsmanship applied in constructing the wall is similar to brickwork, in that the gaps and crevices between the stacked stones are plugged with coral and smaller rocks.</p><br>
<p>Góra Świętej Anny or St. Anne Mountain  is a monadnock in Upper Silesia, Poland, next to the community of the same name. It is the location of the Franciscan monastery with the miracuolous statue of St. Anne and the imposing calvary, which is an important destination for Roman Catholic pilgrimage. It has been a strategic location important to both German and Polish nationalists, and in 1921 it was the site of the Battle of Annaberg, commemorated in the Third Reich by the construction of a Thingstätte  and a mausoleum. The theatre remains, but the Nazi mausoleum was destroyed and replaced with a monument to those who took part in the Third Silesian Uprising.</p><br>
<p>The Composed Cultural and Natural Landscape of Góra Świętej Anny was announced one of Poland&#39;s official Historic Monuments (Pomnik historii) by the National Heritage Board of Poland and the President of Poland.</p><br>
<h2>Geology</h2><br>
<p>The Annaberg is a volcanic cone of Tertiary basalt, the easternmost end of the Silesian volcanic belt and the easternmost occurrence of basalt in Europe. It is 406 m high.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The hill was a pagan shrine in pre-Christian times.</p><br>
<p>It was formerly known as the Chelmberg; around 1100 a wooden chapel to St. George was built on the hill, and it became known as the Georgenberg (St. George&#39;s hill). In 1516 the noble family of von Gaschin, who had moved to Silesia from Poland in the mid-15th century, erected a church dedicated to St. Anne on the Chelmberg. The hill became a popular pilgrimage destination, especially after the donation in 1560 of a wooden statue of St. Anne, containing relics, which is still in the church today.</p><br>
<p>Count Melchior Ferdinand von Gaschin wanted to make the hill the seat of Franciscans, and during the Swedish-Polish War, the order decided to close its houses in Kraków and Lwów and move to Silesia for safety, and an agreement was made under which they would take over the church on the Annaberg. 22 Franciscans moved there on 1 November 1655. The count had a simple wooden monastery building built and replaced the church with a new stone building which was dedicated on 1 April 1673. The church attracted increasing numbers of pilgrims and led to the hills becoming known as St. Annes hill. In 1864, 400,000 pilgrims visited the church.</p><br>
<p>After the First World War, a plebiscite was held on 20 March 1921 under the terms of the Treaty of Versailles to determine whether the parts of Silesia which had belonged to Prussia and thus to the German Empire would remain German or join the reconstituted Poland. In the parish of Annaberg, as in most of Upper Silesia, a majority voted for Germany, but the local administrative district (Landkreis Groß Strehlitz) was one of the areas where the majority favoured union with Poland. In early May the Third Silesian Uprising began, with Polish units of the Wawelberg Group, against the wishes of the Polish government, seeking to unite with Poland those areas that had voted for it. On 4 May they captured the Annaberg, which in addition to the cultural importance of the monastery for German Silesians, had strategic importance since it dominates the Oder valley, from the legally limited forces of the German army. On 21&ndash;23 May, in the Battle of Annaberg, unofficial German forces of the Upper Silesian Selbstschutz and the Bavarian Freikorps Oberland, under the command of Generalleutnant Bernhard von Hülsen, retook the hill despite having no artillery of their own. There were heavy losses on both sides and fighting took place in several neighbouring villages. Several participants on the German side were later prominent in the Nazi regime.</p><br>
<p>With the battle added to its existing role symbolising the Catholic identity of Silesia within predominantly Protestant Prussia, the Annaberg became a powerful symbol of German regional nationalism; it features in this role in the 1927 propaganda film Land unterm Kreuz. It also had religious and cultural importance for Polish Silesians; it was the subject of a poem by Norbert Bonczyk; and after the 1921 battle, also became a political symbol for Poles.</p><br>
<p>In 1934&ndash;1936, the Nazis built a Thingstätte on the site of a quarry at the base of the hill. In 1936&ndash;1938, a mausoleum for 51 fallen members of the German Freikorps, designed by Robert Tischler, was erected overlooking this, The intent was for the complex of mausoleum and theatre to be a counter to the monastery and "transform the Annaberg into the symbol of Upper Silesia and an appropriate site of religious and national celebration". However, after its inauguration in May 1938, the theatre was not used again for ceremonies, while pilgrims continued to visit the monastery in ever increasing numbers.</p><br>
<p>The mausoleum was dynamited in 1945 and in 1955 was replaced by a monument to the Silesian rebels, designed by Xawery Dunikowski.</p><br>
<p>The monks have been expelled from the monastery three times, under Napoleon (in 1810; pilgrims brought their own priests with them and the Franciscans did not return until 1859), Helmut Kohl had intended to attend a service there during his reconciliation tour of Poland in November 1989 from which he was recalled by the fall of the Berlin Wall on 9 November. (This was regarded as an unfortunate choice and Kohl was instead taken to Helmut von Moltkes estate, where a chaotic mass in Polish took place with members of the German minority attempting to sing hymns to St. Anne.) The monastery today draws thousands of pilgrims every year, particularly from Upper Silesia itself and especially for St. Annes Day, 26 July, and for the Catholic Church is a symbol of piety that transcends national boundaries. In March 1980, Pope John Paul II declared the church a minor basilica.</p><br>
<p>On 14 April 2004, the Annaberg was declared a Polish historic monument.</p><br>
<h2>Monuments</h2><br>
<h3>Monastery</h3><br>
<p>The monastery buildings, at the top of the hill, are Baroque; the church was rebuilt in 1665 and the other buildings, which form a quadrangle on its south side, date to 1733&ndash;49. The main object of veneration by the pilgrims is a statue of St. Anne with the Virgin and Child carved out of lime wood above the main altar in the church, about 66 cm tall, which supposedly contains relics of the saint from the monastery of Ville near Lyons in France and is credited with miracles. It is said to have been donated to the church by Nikolaus von Kochtitzky, a local nobleman, in 1560, and is dressed in cloth of gold with pearls.</p><br>
<p>Outside the church is the Paradiesplatz (Paradise Square), a formal monastery garden laid out in 1804. In 1912 the Lourdes Grotto was added.</p><br>
<h3>Amphitheatre</h3><br>
<p>The Thingstätte or open-air theatre for Thingspiele, Nazi multi-disciplinary performances, was built in 1934&ndash;36, the first in Silesia. It was designed by Franz Böhmer and Georg Pettich and had seats for 7,000, standing room for 20,000, and the capacity to hold up to 50,000. Since the war it has been used for harvest festivals and concerts and attempts have been made to fund restoration, but in 2008 the stonework was in serious disrepair.</p><br>
<h3>Mausoleum</h3><br>
<p>In 1936&ndash;38, a mausoleum for the 51 Freikorps members who had died in the Battle of Annaberg was added at the top of the cliff above the amphitheatre. It was designed by Robert Tischler, chief architect for the German War Graves Commission, in military style, recalling a medieval fortress such as the Hohenstaufen Castel del Monte. One writer at the time compared it to a gun turret. It was circular, with heavy columns of rusticated sandstone surmounted by eternal flames, and a narrow entrance leading to an ambulatory lit only by narrow windows reminiscent of gun-slits, while on the other side a dark stairway suggestive of passage between worlds led down into the crypt cut out of the rock. Niches contained sarcophagi labelled with stages in the military history of Germany from 1914 to "1931/32: Deutschland erwache!" (Germany, awake!), and in the centre was a statue of a fallen warrior in green porphyry, by Fritz Schmoll known as Eisenwerth, which the sculptor and his assistants had created in place during construction of the monument because it would have been too large to bring through the entrance. A cupola admitted diffused light, and predominantly gold mosaics by Rössler of Dresden and Klemm of Munich depicted stylised German eagles and swastikas. A 1938 description in a publication of the War Graves Commission described the dead there as "keep watch on the border and encourag the border region and its people to preserve German character and German faith" and pointed out the location midway between the Hindenburg monument at Tannenberg and the monuments in the Königsplatz in Munich. The surroundings of the monument were made a nature preserve, and to complete their pilgrimage, visitors had to walk up from the level of the theatre through the natural environment.</p><br>
<p>Tischler designed several monuments in a similar somewhat rustic style reminiscent both of medieval fortresses and of the Hindenburg monument.</p><br>
<h3>Monument to the uprising</h3><br>
<p>The mausoleum was dynamited in 1945 and in 1955 a monument to the Silesian rebels (Pomnik Czynu Powstańczego), designed by Xawery Dunikowski, was dedicated in its place on the tenth anniversary of the liberation. This is a simple classical design with four pillars in rectangular section surrounding an eternal flame and supporting architraves, under which are four massive granite sculptures of "Silesian heads". There are industrial symbols on the gables. On the inside, the pillars are decorated with stylised depictions of miners, Silesian peasants, ironworkers, and a mother with a child on her arm in the manner of caryatids, while the exterior surfaces have drawings outlined in lead of everyday and work scenes from the present and the past and scenes of the uprising itself. These included conflicts with the Germans since the medieval period of the Teutonic Knights, implying eternal enmity between Germans and Poles, and for the 25th anniversary of the uprising in 1946, urns containing ashes of people killed by the Nazis in the Warsaw Uprising had been interred there. However, by 1955 the anti-German message was overshadowed by the message of praise for the forerunners of the Communist state.</p><br>
<p>Dunikowski had already sketched ideas for the monument in early 1946, and won a contest to design it, but he was less expert as an architect than as a sculptor and was under official pressure, and the building does not have the intended impressive effect.</p><br>
<p>Mount Hitchcock is a mountain located in South Hadley and Hadley, Massachusetts. It reaches 1,002 feet  at its peak in South Hadley. The Metacomet-Monadnock Trail runs through it as it does for all the Holyoke Range. To the west is Seven Sisters and Mount Holyoke. To its east is Bare Mountain.</p><br>
<p>Mount Hitchcock is the second highest peak in South Hadley with Bare Mountain being the highest by 8 feet. On the immediate northern shoulder of Hitchcock lies the highest point in Hadley. For many decades, Mount Hitchcock was thought to be the highest. However, carefully topographical and boundary analysis shows both that the peak of Bare Mountain is within the borders of the town and that it is 8 feet higher.</p><br>
<p>Mount Hitchcock is named after Edward Hitchcock, a former professor of geology at Amherst College. He studied the entire range from a geological and cultural point of view. Once there was a viewing tower on the top of the mountain. It has been taken down. Mount Hitchcock is probably the hardest peak in the Holyoke Range to get to since it is farthest from a road.</p><br>
<p>Springfield Mill, also known as the Piper-Streeper Mill, is a historic gristmill located along the Wissahickon Creek in Erdenheim, Springfield Township, Montgomery County, Pennsylvania. It is a building on the Bloomfield Farm tract, now part of Morris Arboretum.</p><br>
<p>Springfield Mill is open to the public once a month for grinding demonstrations.</p><br>
<p>The mill was built in 1854, and is a -story, stone-and-frame mill building measuring 35 feet, 3 inches, by 40 feet, 8 inches. The mill was built on the foundations of an earlier mill built in 1761. Also on the property is the miller&#39;s house; a -story, four-bay building built about 1845 in the Greek Revival style.</p><br>
<p>It was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1976.</p><br>
<p>Lansdale Silk Hosiery Compy-Interstate Hosiery Mills, Inc. is a historic silk mill complex located at Lansdale, Montgomery County, Pennsylvania. It was built in four interconnected phases between 1922 and 1961, with the original 1922 building , as well as the 1932 building, included in the listing. The original building was built in 1922, with additions constructed in 1926, 1928, and 1929. The building is two stories tall, and sits on a brownstone foundation. The 1932 building is a three-story, red brick building with a flat roof and brick parapet. The complex produced women&#39;s full-fashioned silk hosiery. It was occupied by textile manufacturers into the 1970s.</p><br>
<p>It was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 2004.</p><br>
<p>Fall Hill is a plantation located near the falls on the Rappahannock River in Fredericksburg, Virginia. Though the Thornton family has lived at Fall Hill since the early 18th century, the present house was built in 1790 for Francis Thornton V . The land on which Fall Hill is located is part of an 8,000 acres land patent obtained by Francis Thornton I  around 1720. The present-day town of Fredericksburg, Virginia is located on that original patent.</p><br>
<h2>The mansion at Fall Hill</h2><br>
<p>The mansion at Fall Hill (pictured) is a Georgian two-story home with a central hall and two large rooms on either side. Its roof is hipped and there are interior chimneys at each end. The outside walls are randomly glazed Flemish bond brickwork. In keeping with the Georgian design of the exterior, second floor window openings are proportionately smaller than those of the first floor.</p><br>
<p>The home was remodeled around 1830 and, as a result of replacements to door and window frames, doors and sashes, the only original parts of the exterior are the walls, roof, and chimneys. During this remodeling, two windows on the front of the house were bricked over on both the first and second floors. Doric columns on the porches on the west front and south end were added in the 19th century. More recently, a larger Doric porch on the east front was removed. During renovations, Greek Revival fireplace mantels were installed in the northwest and southwest rooms. These have since been removed to expose the original segmental fireplace openings.</p><br>
<p>The grounds surrounding the house contain many old trees in a wide variety of species. There are a number of gravel walks around the park-like grounds. A hillside west of the house provides a view of nearby Fredericksburg.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The land on which Fall Hill was established is believed to have been included in a grant of 8,000 acres in Spotsylvania County patented by Francis Thornton I (1657–1727) around 1720. Thornton belonged to one of Virginia&#39;s distinguished Colonial families. Upon settling in the area, Thornton established a home at The Falls, a plantation at the foot of Fall Hill within the present-day town of Fredericksburg. The family ran a grist mill on the Rappahannock River. It is said that Francis Thornton III (1711–1749) built the house on Fall Hill in order to escape the heat of the house at The Falls laying lower in elevation near the river.</p><br>
<p>Francis Thornton III married Frances Gregory, daughter of Mildred Washington Gregory, aunt and godmother of George Washington. He served as a burgess, a trustee of Fredericksburg, and Colonel of the Spotsylvania militia. In 1749, Fall Hill was inherited by Colonel Thornton&#39;s son, Francis Thornton IV (1737–1794). However, he and his wife, Ann Thompson, maintained their primary residence at The Falls.</p><br>
<p>The present mansion at Fall Hill is believed to have been built by Francis Thornton V (1760–1836) probably around 1790 when he married Sally Innes. This belief is supported by architectural evidence in the design of the houses common to the period. Francis Thornton V was a Justice of the Peace in Spotsylvania County. Their son, James Innes Thornton, was born at Fall Hill. He moved to Alabama, became its third secretary of state, and established his own plantation, Thornhill. Francis Thornton V died in 1836 without a will. For nine years, until the estate was settled in 1845, Fall Hill was maintained by family slaves. Ultimately, the estate was deeded to Dr. John Taylor in 1845. Dr. Taylor had married Elizabeth Fitzgerald Forbes, a daughter of Sally Innes Thornton and Murray Forbes, and a granddaughter of Francis Thornton V, in February 1842. It was Dr. Taylor that renovated the home in the 1840s.</p><br>
<p>Its proximity to the Rappahannock River made Fall Hill a strategic point during the Fredericksburg Campaign of the Civil War. Fortifications were built along the river at the house to protect the crossing. The breastworks were built by General Robert E. Lee&#39;s soldiers.</p><br>
<p>In 1870 Dr. Taylors son, Murry Forbes Taylor, married Butler-Brayne Thornton, a cousin of his mother, and also a descendant of Francis Thornton V, which again reinforced Fall Hill as a part of the Thornton family legacy. Taylor and his wife lived with Doctor Taylor at Fall Hill from 1875 to 1877. In 1877, Murray Taylor and his wife moved to California where Taylor managed the estate of Mrs. Phoebe Apperson Hearst (mother of William Randolph Hearst) at San Simeon, California. To show her gratitude to Murray Taylor when he retired from his job at San Simeon in 1908, Mrs. Hearst purchased Fall Hill for $25,000 as a gift for him. It was Mrs. Hearsts wish that Butler-Brayne Thornton Robinson Franklin (granddaughter of Murray Forbes Taylor and Butler Brayne Thornton) inherit the estate. Fall Hill was added to the National Register of Historic Places in June 1973.</p><br>
<p>Chupanga, formerly Shupanga, also known as Lacerdónia, is a village in Marromeu District, Sofala Province, Mozambique, located on the right bank of Zambezi River. It is the administrative center of one of the two postos which constitute Marromeu District. There are strata of grey and yellow sandstone, along with limestone, located nearby.</p><br>
<p>The village of Shupanga was founded before the arrival of Europeans. It was visited by the Second Zambesi Expedition of David Livingstone. The wife of Livingstone, Mary, died in Shupanga of malaria.</p><br>
<p>Chupanga is located on Road N219, which connects it with Marromeu to the east and provide access to EN1 road to the west. It is connected by an unpaved road R1002 with Inhamitanga.</p><br>
<p>Mount Clara smelter is a heritage-listed former copper smelter at Rossmore Road, in the upper reaches of Fat Hen Creek, Oakview , Gympie Region, Queensland, Australia. It was built in 1873. It was added to the Queensland Heritage Register on 21 October 1992.</p><br>
<p>Most of the operation is now in ruins, and the chimney is the only remaining intact part of a once active copper mine.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>During the copper boom of the 1860s – mid-1870s the price of copper was as much as UK £95 per ton. Copper mining probably commenced in the Mount Clara - Mount Coora area in 1872. The Mount Clara smelter was built in 1873. The smelter was built with local rock, and sand from Fraser Island.</p><br>
<p>The Mount Clara smelter was among the earliest built in Queensland, being built after Peak Downs, Mount Perry and Flanagans smelters, but a year before those at Mount Coora, Blackall Mine and the Adolphus William.</p><br>
<p>An 1872 report states that 8 tons of copper had been produced from 60 tons of ore, giving a return of 13 percent copper/ore. Slag from the operation was drained off in to the creek and large clumps are still visible.</p><br>
<p>The ore was a rich blue-green carbonate, sourced from a 10-foot thick solid bed, yielding well over 100 tonnes. It was fortuitous that carbonate ores are well suited to the reverberatory furnace method used at this site.</p><br>
<p>The smelter was reported to run continuously and satisfactorily.</p><br>
<p>The use of the smelter but only operated until 1875 when it was closed and the Mount Clara copper ore was subsequently carted to the Mount Coora smelter for treatment, following the purchase of the Mount Clara holdings by the Mount Coora Copper Mining Company in 1874. This may have been due to the fact that Mount Clara mine was two miles from the smelter, and ore had to be carted a considerable distance anyway. Mount Coora later had an ore roasting furnace built as well.</p><br>
<p>The Mount Clara smelter fell into neglect. All mining in the area ceased by 1886. At the time seven other similar smelters were functioning in the area, however these are no longer to be seen.</p><br>
<p>The eventual closure of the mines was attributed by Rands (in 1886) to the high cost of fuel for the smelters.</p><br>
<h3>Conservation and tourism</h3><br>
<p>Kilkivan Shire Council, with the help of a grant from the National Trust, undertook work to restore the historic Mount Clara Copper Smelter. The chimney was completely restored along with safety fencing, and the unpaved road was also made safer for travel. Mount Clara Chimney was registered with the National Trust of Queensland, and is on the Queensland Heritage Register.</p><br>
<p>The chimney is now a key tourist attraction in the Kilkivan area. It is located 3 km off Rossmore Road, 13 km by road out of town. The National Estate citation notes that "The site is notable for the absence of modern intrusions and as a relic of early mining activity in the area."</p><br>
<h2>Description</h2><br>
<p>The smelter remains which were renovated by Kilkivan Shire Council in 1978, are exposed to ground level. The smelter is made of brick and stone, the walls standing to a height of 170cm at the fire-box end, and to 120cm height at the opposite end of the smelter. These heights seem to correlate with the spring-level of the now collapsed arched roof. The internal ovoid form of the reverberatory smelter can be readily seen. The fire-box is particularly well preserved and has a deep below-ground access. Iron staples are inserted into the base plinth of the smelter at regular intervals and seem to be the support points for the rail reinforcing bars which would have originally bound the smelter.</p><br>
<p>The slag heap is small (22m x 11m) and contains large square sand mould slag blocks, each about 80 x 40 x 15cm.</p><br>
<p>West of the smelter is an area of brick rubble and vitrified brick. This seems to be the dump spot where rubble removed from the smelter in 1978 was tipped. A chain wire fence was placed around the smelter and chimney in 1978 which prevents close access to the remains.</p><br>
<h3>The chimney</h3><br>
<p>The chimney is thought to be the oldest surviving mining industry chimney in Queensland, also being among the first built. It was constructed from local bluestone, clamped with iron, and held together with a lime and sand mortar. Firebricks lining the furnace and chimney were made from good quality local fireclay.</p><br>
<p>The chimney stands close to the smelter and the entry point of the smelter flue, now collapsed, can be clearly seen at about 180cm up the western face of the chimney.</p><br>
<h3>The mine</h3><br>
<p>The ore from the mine was taken from a shaft dug into the mountain approximately 1 mile away. The mine has an arched roof and no uprights, and is believed to mimic the style used by miners from Cornwall.</p><br>
<p>The mine entrance was rediscovered and opened in the 1980s and some more exploratory work was done intermittently over the next several years, although no commercial operations ever took place. It has since been resealed for safety.</p><br>
<p>The mine itself is situated on private property and is not included in the heritage register boundary.</p><br>
<h2>Heritage listing</h2><br>
<p>Mount Clara smelter was listed on the Queensland Heritage Register on 21 October 1992 having satisfied the following criteria.</p><br>
<p>The place is important in demonstrating the evolution or pattern of Queensland&apos;s history.</p><br>
<p>Together with the small number of well-preserved 1870s smelters (Flanagans, Adolphus William) the Mount Clara smelter is important in demonstrating the evolution of base metal mining in Queensland.</p><br>
<p>The place demonstrates rare, uncommon or endangered aspects of Queensland&apos;s cultural heritage.</p><br>
<p>Smelters of this age and good state of preservation are rare aspects of Queensland&#39;s history. The smelter chimney is perhaps the oldest surviving mining industry chimney in Queensland.</p><br>
<p>The place has potential to yield information that will contribute to an understanding of Queensland&apos;s history.</p><br>
<p>The site may also contain evidence that provides information contributing to the understanding of that period and of early mining in the Maryborough district.</p><br>
<p>The Cat Stane, or Catstane, is an inscribed standing stone near Kirkliston, on the outskirts of Edinburgh, in Scotland. It bears a fragmentary inscription dating to the fifth or sixth centuries and was formerly part of a funerary complex consisting of the stone itself, a cairn and a series of cist burials.</p><br>
<p>The stone&#39;s Latin inscription is interpreted as a dedication to a deceased woman whose remains were interred near the stone. Dates have been ascribed to the stone and its inscription by considering the script used and the results of several excavations conducted in modern times.</p><br>
<p>The stone appears to have been erected in the Bronze Age while the inscription was added in the fifth or sixth centuries AD. During the latter period the area around modern Edinburgh was controlled by the nation known as either The Votadini or The Gododdin.</p><br>
<p>The Cat Stane now lies within the perimeter of Edinburgh Airport, making it impossible for the general public to access it. Nearby is the confluence of the Gogar Burn and the River Almond. The stone is a Scheduled Ancient Monument.</p><br>
<h2>Description</h2><br>
<p>The Cat Stane is an irregular standing stone of 1.3m height. It is heavily weathered but preserves an inscription in Latin, with several lacunas.</p><br>
<p>The inscription, carved in a rough Latin script appears to read:</p><br>
<p>This is interpreted by the Royal Commission on the Ancient and Historical Monuments of Scotland (RCAHMS) as representing:</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The earliest description of the Cat Stane was made by the Welsh scholar Edward Lhuyd in 1699 who described it as standing on a pavement of flat stones surrounding the remains of a low oval cairn.</p><br>
<p>The first excavation of the stone&#39;s vicinity was conducted in 1860. Further excavation took place in 1864 and, most recently, 1977 when it was unsuccessfully proposed that the stone be removed from the grounds of Edinburgh airport.</p><br>
<p>These excavations showed that the Cat Stane was surrounded by a series of burials in stone-lined graves known as cists.</p><br>
<p>RCAHMS interprets the Cat Stane as a Bronze Age site re-used for burials in the fifth or sixth centuries.</p><br>
<p>The Fillmore Block, now known as the Dows Mercantile Store, is an historic building located in Dows, Iowa, United States. The Dows commercial district was destroyed in a fire in 1894. This building was completed for $12,000 in 1895 for D.H. Fillmore, a member of a prominent family in the community. The two-story Victorian Romanesque Revival style structure was designed by A.H. Conner & Co. It was one of 17 stores constructed in the commercial area. The building housed a variety commercial enterprises including a restaurant, ladies clothing and dress goods, boots and shoes, notions, groceries, flour, hardware, furniture and the like. It was acquired by the Dows Historical Society in 1987. It was reopened two years later as an antique mall that also sells Iowa-made products. The building was listed on the National Register of Historical Places in 1998.</p><br>
<p>The Lisbon Historic District is located at the intersection of USA Route 30 and Ohio route 45 in Lisbon, Ohio. The district covers approximately 42 acre.</p><br>
<p>The town of Lisbon was located along important land and water transportation routes from the east into newly settled territories in the west. As a result of this, Lisbon, the second oldest town in Ohio, played an important part in the development of Ohio, which had been granted statehood in 1803.</p><br>
<p>The district features a number of commercial and residential buildings which were constructed during the period from 1810-1900. The buildings, examples of predominantly Federal architecture, were mostly constructed of brick. The historic district encompasses the original town square (pictured).</p><br>
<p>The Lisbon Historic District was added to the National Register of Historic Places in August 1979.</p><br>
<p>Shober Bridge is a historic humpback bridge carrying Ellis Street across the Norfolk Southern Railway in Salisbury, North Carolina, one of two timber bridges in the city. It has asphalt on top of a wooden deck and has needed replacement for many years. Currently, the Shober Bridge has a six-ton weight limit, meaning large trucks and emergency vehicles cannot use it. Historic Salisbury Foundation calls it "a contributing structure to the Ellis Street Graded School Historic District and... a gateway entrance to Salisbury proper." It was named for Col. Francis Shober, who represented Salisbury in the United States Congress in the late 1860s. In 1999, the Shober Bridge was named to the National Register of Historic Places as part of the Ellis Street Graded School Historic District.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The Western North Carolina Railroad opened in 1858 between Salisbury and Morganton. In 1896, Southern Railway Company (now Norfolk Southern) took over operation of the railroad. During the American Civil War, Gen. George Stoneman crossed the railroad where the bridge is now. By 1880, according to Norfolk Southern, a bridge had been built. Plans for a replacement bridge had been made by 1926, and the current bridge was apparently built between 1932 and 1944.</p><br>
<p>On February 9, 1962, four African-American children crossed the Shober Bridge on their way to integrating the all-white Frank B. John Elementary School.</p><br>
<p>In 1971, the state turned over the bridge to the city. By 1975, the city decided the bridge needed replacing. By 1985, the bridge was eligible for federal money to pay for 80 percent of its replacement cost. In 1996, the city wanted to build a new $1.4 million bridge west of the existing one as part of a major connector between Kerr Street and Mocksville Avenue. Area residents protested, since the plan would disrupt the historic district. The city agreed, and plans began for replacing the bridge at its existing location. In 2001, Norfolk Southern asked that the bridge be designed for three sets of tracks; the railroad had two tracks.</p><br>
<p>In January 2004, the new bridge was expected to be complete by 2005 or 2006.</p><br>
<p>By 2006, an engineer had a plan to upgrade the existing bridge.</p><br>
<p>On March 18, 2010 a letter to the Salisbury Post stated that the Historic Salisbury Foundation "strongly endorses and supports the proper rehabilitation of the historic Shober Bridge." Many homes in Salisbury at the time displayed signs with the message "Rehab Historic Shober Bridge. This landmark is worth saving!"</p><br>
<p>Work has been done on the bridge in recent years, but a permanent fix is needed. In 2010, the city was supporting upgrading the bridge provided fire trucks could use it. Norfolk Southern rejected plans to upgrade the bridge, so the city decided to do nothing.</p><br>
<p>Damdamaa reservoir in Sohna, district in the Indian state of Haryana. It is one of the biggest lakes in Haryana and with an area of 3,000 acres . Damdama Lake was formed when a stone and earthen dam constructed by the British was commissioned for rain water harvesting in 1947. The lake, held by an embankment, is fed mainly by monsoon rain pouring into a trough at the base of the Aravali hills. The Lake greets visitors with a water level down to 20 ft. During monsoon the water level reaches up to 50 ft - 70 ft.</p><br>
<h2>Geology and climate</h2><br>
<p>As it is located in a hilly region, the topography of this area is not even. Damdama Lake is spread in the shape of an amoeba and has many branches. Dream Island adventure resort being right in the middle of the lake has a moderate climate and is good for a visit any time of the year. Best time to visit the lake is from October to March, late summers and monsoons. The climate is typically hot during summer, temperature reaching up to 45–47 °C.</p><br>
<h2>Ecology</h2><br>
<p>Damdama lake is a natural home for birds, & more than 190 species of birds, migratory as well as local, visit here during summer, monsoon and winter season, i.e. all throughout the year a variety of birds from different places flock to Dream Island. Some of the major birds seen here are water fowl, cranes, cormorants, terns, egrets, kingfishers etc. While driving to Damdama Lake, you can also catch a glimpse of peacocks and blue bulls.</p><br>
<h2>Leisure</h2><br>
<p>Surrounded by the Aravali Mountains, it is one of the popular picnic spot to spend the weekend away from the city in a quiet and scenic atmosphere. In the serene location, one can enjoy boating in row boats, paddle boats and motor boats. Damdama is known for its splendid adventure sports facilities such as para sailing, kayaking, cycling, angling, rock climbing, valley crossing. One can also go for nature walks in the nearby Aravali hills.</p><br>
<h2>Attractions nearby</h2><br>
<h3>Hot springs</h3><br>
<p>The Sulfur hot spring of Sohna Sulphur Hot Spring at Sohna is a religious and tourist attraction with medicinal value for skin diseases. According to a legend, one of the pandav, Arjun, dug this well when he was thirsty. Sohna is very close to Dream Island Resort at Damdama Lake.</p><br>
<h3>Ancient Shiva temple</h3><br>
<p>An ancient Shiva temple is located in Sohna and was built by the Raja of Bharatpur/Gwalior. Every year on the occasion of Shiv Chaudas & Shiv Ratri, the residents of Sohna offer their special prayers to Lord Shiva & Maa Bhagwati for the new born babies and newly married couples.</p><br>
<p>The Prather Site  is a Middle Mississippian culture archaeological site located in the Falls of the Ohio region in Clark County, Indiana. It was the principal ceremonial center of the Prather Complex, the northeastern most regional variant of the Mississippian cultures. It also bordered on several Upper Mississippian cultures, including the Fort Ancient peoples of Southern Indiana, Southern Ohio and Northeastern Kentucky.</p><br>
<h2>Site description</h2><br>
<p>The Prather Site is located 4.9 km west of the Ohio River and 2.4 km east of Silver Creek on a loess-capped upland ridge. It is unusual for a Mississippian mound center to be located in the upland area rather than the alluvial valley closer to the river, but the site is watered by permanent natural springs and shallow streams. Other sites in the complex to the northeast of the site are also situated primarily in the uplands, while those to the south and southwest are located in the alluvial valley. This implies the inhabitants of the area may have settle farther back from the river in an attempt to avoid contact with people traveling on the river, trading the richer soils and marine resources for this added safety.</p><br>
<p>The site itself consists of a 5.2 hectare residential village area surrounding four platform mounds arranged in a roughly rectangular pattern around a central plaza area. Dating done from samples obtained from the largest mound indicate it was used from approximately 1000 to 1180 CE. It is possible this area was surrounded by a palisade, although currently one has not been located.</p><br>
<p>The site is located next to Indiana State Road 62, immediately west of the former Indiana Army Ammunition Plant. Until relatively recently the area was rural but residential and industrial encroachment is rapidly changing the area. Multiple modern development are planned for the area, including a new bridge over the Ohio River and new housing developments, that could have significant impact on the site and currently threaten its preservation as a viable archaeological site.</p><br>
<h2>Excavations</h2><br>
<p>The site has undergone several site surveys and some excavations during its modern history. Eli Lilly and the Indiana Historical Society employed E.Y. Guernsey to carry out surveys and excavations at Clark County sites in the early 1930s. He noted three of the mounds at the site, the smallest of which he partially excavated and the largest he examined. Guernsey noted several different types of mortuary practices at the sites, including stone box graves and several flexed and extended burials beneath a fired clay floor. He also discovered typical Mississippian culture pottery, known for its use of crushed marine shells as a tempering agent, a stone discoidal associated with the game of chunkey, a shell gorget and a copper-covered, carved wooden raptorial bird covered in beaten copper. The present whereabouts of all of the artifacts he collected are not currently known, but some are curated at the Glenn Black Laboratory of Archaeology at Indiana University-Bloomington, and at the University of Michigan Museum of Anthropology.</p><br>
<p>Several amateur archaeologists occasionally dug at the site over the years after Guernsey, but the next major professional archaeological work at the site was a field school held by Donald Janzen in 1971. He reported one large single mound at the site. He also found sections of a wall trench structure dating ton approximately 1045 CE, and examples Mississippian pottery. Among ceramics found were Mississippian plain pottery, some rare decorated examples with incised lines and red filming, and a fragment of a black-on-buff negative painted bottle.</p><br>
<p>The next major excavations at the site were undertaken in 2003 by Cheryl Munson and Robert McCullough, with funding provided by the National Park Service and administered by the Indiana Division of Historic Preservation and Archaeology.</p><br>
<h2>Prather Complex</h2><br>
<p>The Prather Complex (or "Falls Mississippian" ) is the northeastern most variant of the Middle Mississippian culture. It is a group of sites located in the Falls of the Ohio region of central Kentucky and southern Indiana. It is separated from the next closest Mississippian variant, the Angel Phase centered on the Angel Mounds site near Evansville, Indiana, down the Ohio River approximately 85 km to the southwest. The section of the river between the two was an empty buffer zone. Another empty buffer zone stretched 95 km up the Ohio River to the northeast, separating the peoples of the Prather complex from Fort Ancient culture populations. Although it is possible these empty zones were for social or political reasons, it may also be because the narrowing of the alluvial valley upstream and downstream of the Falls region made it less suitable for the intensive maize agriculture practiced by the societies. The Falls region is the only wide expanse of bottom land flood terrace in between the Little Miami River at Cincinnati, Ohio (occupied by Fort Ancient peoples) and the Anderson River near Evansville, Indiana(occupied by the Angel Phase). This expanse of flood plain is similar to areas occupied by classic Mississippian sites in the Midwest and Southeast.</p><br>
<p>The Prather, Willey, Spangler-Koons, and Newcomb/Elrod/Hale are the largest sites of the complex. Other smaller sites include the Ellingsworth, Smith, Clarks Point, Devils Backbone, Eva Bandman, and Shippingport sites.</p><br>
<p>Although the Prather site may have been the center of ceremony and politics for the complex, the presence of stone box graves at several of the sites in the complex such as Willey and Spangler-Koons suggest that mortuary rituals may not have been centralized at the site.</p><br>
<p>The Pinnacle Peak is a part and third highest summit with elevation 6,930 m of the Nun Kun mountain massif of the western Himalayan Range, located near the Suru valley, on Kargil Zanskar road 80 kilometers west of Kargil town and 290 kilometers east of Srinagar, the state capital of Jammu and Kashmir,</p><br>
<p>The Pinnacle Peak is located north-east of Nun 7,135 m which is the highest summit of the massif and is separated from it by a snowy plateau of 4 km in length, between them rises another peak Kun 7,077 m.</p><br>
<h2>Mountaineering</h2><br>
<p>Early exploration of the massif included a visit in 1898 and three visits by Arthur Neve, in 1902, 1904, and 1910. In 1903, Dutch mountaineer Dr. H. Sillem investigated the massif and discovered the high plateau between the peaks; he reached an altitude of 6,400 m (21,000 ft) on Nun. In 1906, the Pinnacle Peak was first ascended by a noted explorer couple Fanny Bullock Workman and her husband William Hunter Workman. They also toured extensively through the massif and produced a map; however, controversy surrounded the Workmans&#39; claims, and few trigonometrical points were given for the region, so that the map they produced was not usable.</p><br>
<p>The massif is accessed by 210 kilometers by road from Srinagar NH 1D up to Kargil and then 80 kilometers via Kargil Zanskar road.</p><br>
<p>The Kun Peak is a part of Nun Kun mountain massif. It is the second highest summit of the massif with elevation of 7,077 m in the eastern Himalayan Range, located near the Suru valley, on Kargil Zanskar road 80 kilometers west of Kargil town and 290 kilometers east of Srinagar, the state capital of Jammu and Kashmir,</p><br>
<p>The Kun Peak is located north of Nun Peak 7,135 m which is the highest summit of the massif and is separated from it by a snowy plateau of 4 km in length, in the northeast just at the 2 km of distance rises another peak of the massif known as Pinnacle Peak 6,930 m.</p><br>
<h2>Mountaineering</h2><br>
<p>The Nun Kun massif was first sighted in 1898 and three visits by Arthur Neve, in 1902, 1904, and 1910. In 1903, Dutch mountaineer Dr. H. Sillem investigated the massif and discovered the high plateau between the peaks; he reached an altitude of 6,400 m (21,000 ft) on Nun. In 1906, the Pinnacle Peak was first ascended by a noted explorer couple Fanny Bullock Workman and her husband William Hunter Workman. They also toured extensively through the massif and produced a map; however, controversy surrounded the Workmans&#39; claims, and few trigonometrical points were given for the region, so that the map they produced was not usable. The Kun Peak was first successfully climbed by an Italian mountaineering team led by Mario Piacenza, Lorenzo Borelli in 1913.</p><br>
<p>The massif is accessed by 210 kilometers by road from Srinagar NH 1D up to Kargil and then 80 kilometers via Kargil Zanskar road.</p><br>
<p>The Schinasi House is a 12,000 square foot, 35 room marble mansion on Riverside Dr. in New York City. It was built in 1907 for Sephardic Jewish tobacco baron Morris Schinasi. The mansion was designed by Carnegie Hall architect William Tuthill and reportedly retains almost all of its historic detail, including a Prohibition-era trap door that once extended all the way to the river. The structure was added to the National Register of Historic Places on April 23, 1980 and designated a New York City Landmark on March 19, 1974. It has been cited as being the last remaining detached single-family house in Manhattan.</p><br>
<p>Completed in 1909 at the southwest corner of West 107th Street and Riverside Drive, the three-story, 12,000 square foot mansion was designed in neo-French-Renaissance style by William Tuthill., the same architect who designed Carnegie Hall. Morris Schinasi, an Ottoman-Jewish immigrant who made his millions on cigarettes, commissioned the design and owned the thirty-five-room mansion until his death in 1928. After that the mansion changed hands several times until 1979 when Hans Smit, a Columbia University Law Professor, bought it and commissioned an extensive interior restoration. It was designated a New York City landmark on March 19, 1974. The mansion is one of a kind, with rich details in every niche of the building. Pineapple motifs, seen as a symbol of hospitality, are repeated throughout the ornamentation and there was originally a tunnel, now closed up, that led under ground to the Hudson River. Until 2013 it was inhabited by Hans Smit&#39;s son, Robert Smit, his two daughters, Jessie and Marley, and his son, Lennon.</p><br>
<p>On March 19, 1974 the Schinasi mansion was designated a New York City landmark. The Landmarks Preservation Commission found that this residence had “special character, special historical and aesthetic interest, and value as part of the development, heritage, and cultural characteristics of New York City.”</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Morris Schinasi who commissioned this mansion in 1909 was an Ottoman Jewish immigrant who came to the United States in 1882. He came from a family with little money and borrowed $25,000 (in US) from a friend to get to the United States. With him he brought a machine that would change his fortune – a cigarette-rolling machine he designed and presented at the Columbian Exposition held in Chicago in 1893. Until this point, every single cigarette had been hand rolled and therefore this novel device created a lot of interest. Soon after, his brother joined him in New York City and they established the Schinasi Brothers Company, which featured their brand “Egyptian Prettiest” cigarettes rolled with Turkish tobacco. The product became very popular and the brothers built their commercial empire from the ground up.</p><br>
<p>After Schinasi had made his fortune, and met his wife in 1903, he decided to build the mansion on Riverside Drive. At the time most mansions were being built along Park Avenue and Fifth Avenue, but it was predicted that patrons commissioning mansions would get tired of the hustle and bustle of the busy East Side and retreat to building their extravagant homes along the quieter Riverside Drive. As this prediction never came to fruition, the Schinasi mansion remains the largest single-family residence along Riverside Drive.</p><br>
<p>Schinasi selected William Tuthill as the architect for the mansion, but the relationship was not a pleasant one. Tuthill later sued Schinasi for a sum of $5655.65.</p><br>
<p>Schinasi lived at the mansion with his wife, Laurette, and three daughters, Victoria, Juliette, and Altina for almost twenty years. In 1928 Schinasi died at the age of seventy-one, and two years later his heirs sold the house to Semple Realty Corporation for $200,000. Since 1930, the mansion has seen many different visitors and uses, beginning as a Semple School for Girls that served as a finishing school for well to-do young ladies. It is said that in 1956 Mrs. Semple herself actually died in one of the mansion&#39;s thirty-five rooms. Columbia University was the next to purchase the building in 1960 and turned it into a daycare center known as “The Children’s Mansion”. In 1970-1971, the mansion housed a Columbia / Barnard coed residential program called the "Experimental College". Photographer Timothy Greenfield-Sanders was one of 45 residents. Columbia sold the mansion in 1979 to Columbia law professor Hans Smit and his wife for $325,000. At this time he initiated an interior restoration that took twenty years to complete.</p><br>
<p>During Smit’s ownership, he never actually lived in the building, yet his brother’s family did for several years during this time period. Smit also used the mansion for Columbia Law School gatherings and small parties. After Smit completed the restoration in 2006 he attempted to sell with an initial asking price of $31 million. Since then the mansion has made a handful of appearances on the real estate market. It was listed at $15 million in the fall of 2011. It is unconfirmed whether the mansion was sold at that time.</p><br>
<p>Mark Schwartz, a vice chairman at the investment bank Goldman Sachs, bought the Schinasi House at 351 Riverside Drive in 2013.</p><br>
<h2>Building</h2><br>
<h3>Site & Context</h3><br>
<p>The Schinasi mansion sits on the west side of Manhattan in the Upper West Side neighborhood at Riverside Drive and West 107th Street, directly across from Riverside Park. When the mansion was built in the early 1900s there was limited development along Riverside Drive and Park, but the thought was that more mansions would be erected within the near future. Although there are a handful of single-family mansions along Riverside Drive, the prediction for this kind of development never reached its full potential. The largest single-family residence along Riverside Drive at the time was the Charles Schwab mansion "Riverside" - 85 rooms and occupying a full block. It was later demolished, and thus the Schinasi mansion is now the largest single-family residence there.</p><br>
<p>The surrounding neighborhood is full of residential townhouses and apartment buildings and a few blocks northeast sits Columbia University with its main campus at West 116th Street between Broadway and Amsterdam Avenues. The small historic district, Riverside Drive – West 105th Street, sits just a block south and is made up of rowhouses and townhouses built between 1889 and 1902. There are also the Baumgarten House (1901) and the Master Apartments (1929) in the neighborhood both receiving landmark status, such as the mansion."Maps and Building Data." Maps and Building Data. Landmark West. Web. 13 Feb. 2012.</p><br>
<p>A unique characteristic of the mansion is that it is completely offset from all four sides, making it detached from all neighboring buildings. The building measures approximately 41 feet by 73 feet, taking up two typical New York City lots (usually 25 feet by 100 feet). Being completely detached allows the mansion to take advantage of treating all four sides of the building and also to create spaces such as a typical English basement. All four facades of the building were treated slightly differently. The front façade faces West, towards Riverside Park, containing the main door that is flush with the exterior. The longer façade is along West 107th street containing end sections and a recessed center. The North section, which faces the neighboring building on Riverside Drive, curiously contains the most elaborate treatment. Finally the back façade, or East side, contains a three-sided copper oriel at the second level.</p><br>
<h3>Form & Use</h3><br>
<p>The form of the Schinasi mansion makes it unique in Manhattan. Since it is detached from any neighboring building, it is completely freestanding and thus, currently, the only such privately owned single-family residence in Manhattan. This huge building, a total of 12,000 square feet, contains entertainment and service rooms in the basement and first floor including a gym, servants quarters, dining room, gallery, waiting area, and two parlor rooms. The second and third levels contain the many bedrooms and bathrooms, along with sitting areas and kitchens as well. Finally on the top floor there is a studio apartment. In total there are twelve bedrooms, eight bathrooms, and five kitchens. When built there was a tunnel connecting the English basement of the mansion underground Riverside Drive to the banks of the Hudson River. However this route has since been since sealed off.</p><br>
<p>The Schinasi mansion was used originally as a single family home. That was the case during the twenty or so years that Schinasi and his immediate family lived there. However, after his death Schinasi’s heirs sold the mansion and from then on it never saw the same use. Its use has ranged from a private girls finishing school to a daycare center to a location for law students gatherings. It has also been used as the home to June, the wife of a late conman, who rents the studio apartment to the fictional character Neal Caffrey in the popular USA Network show White Collar.</p><br>
<h3>Materials & Methods of Construction</h3><br>
<p>The Schinasi mansion is made of various carved materials, on the interior there is a mix of Egyptian carved marple, hand carved wood, and hand painted frescos. Within the wood are intricately carved symbols and décor, and the pineapple, a symbol of hospitality, is repeated throughout all carvings.</p><br>
<p>The exterior is built completely of white Vermont marble, structurally and aesthetically. The roof is a mansard terra cotta and green tile with steel girders and copper cornices. The construction manager of the mansion, Charles T. Willis, predicted the house would cost $180,000 to build, and he was right. The mansion completed construction one year after it began in 1909.</p><br>
<p>Alaska Basin is a subalpine basin on the west slopes of the Teton Range, in the USA state of Wyoming. Located on the western border of Grand Teton National Park, Alaska Basin is within the Jedediah Smith Wilderness of Caribou-Targhee National Forest. The drainage for the basin is to the northwest along Teton Creek through Teton Canyon. Access into the basin is by trail only and the basin is bisected by the Teton Crest Trail which connects Mount Meek Pass to the south with Hurricane Pass to the north. The Alaska Basin Trail also enters Alaska Basin and connects with the Teton Crest Trail near Sunset Lake. Alaska Basin can also be accessed from the west by starting at the Teton Canyon campground. From there the hike to the summit of Table Mountain is 12 mi roundtrip with a total elevation gain of 4,150 ft.</p><br>
<p>Bala Cynwyd Junior High School Complex, is a historic school complex in Bala Cynwyd, Lower Merion Township, Montgomery County, Pennsylvania. The complex includes the Bala Cynwyd Middle School, the Cynwyd Elementary School, as well as the former Lower Merion Academy. The elementary school and middle schools are part of the Lower Merion School District. The Lower Merion Academy / Lower Merion Benevolent School building was built in 1812, and is a 3 1/2-story, five bay, stuccoed stone building with cupola in the Federal style. It was renovated in 1938, in the Colonial Revival style. The Cynwyd Elementary School building was built in 1914, with a rear addition built in 1920. It is a 2 1/2-story, Classical Revival style building that features white terra cotta trim and a central entrance with Ionic order columns. The Bala Cynwyd Middle School building was built in 1938, and is a long, flat, two-story brick building in the modern style. A classroom wing was added in 1963. The buildings were renovated and some additions built in 1999.</p><br>
<p>It was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 2002.</p><br>
<p>Sabotin  is 609 m mountain ridge overlooking Gorizia, Nova Gorica, and Solkan on the border between Slovenia and Italy. At its foot stands the Solkan Bridge spanning the Soča River.</p><br>
<h2>Name</h2><br>
<p>The mountain was first attested in written sources circa 1370 as Saluatin. The name is of unclear origin. Based on the oldest transcriptions of the name, it can be derived from *Salbotin, based on the Latin personal name Salvus (literally, healthy). Another possibility (assuming that the old transcriptions are wrong) is that the name was originally Sabotin, based on the Italian name Sàb(b)ato, originally given to a child born on a Saturday. A third possibility is that it is derived from *San Valentin (there is a church dedicated to Saint Valentine on the mountain) through a number of unexpected phonological changes.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Sabotin represented an important defence point defending Gorizia during the Soča/Isonzo offensives. It was defended by the Austro-Hungarian 58th division. Pietro Badoglio assigned general Giuseppe Venturi&#39;s 45th division to capture Sabotin in the Sixth Battle of the Isonzo. On 6 August 1916, after a brief and bloody battle, the mountain was captured by the Italians.</p><br>
<p>Sickle Moon Peak or Bharanzar Peak  is located in the Kishtwar Himalaya and is the highest summit of the range. It lies in the eastern Himalayan range, and is 12 km north of Brammah massis in Kishtwar, 55 kilometers east of Kishtwar town and 195 kilometers east of Srinagar, the state capital of Jammu and Kashmir.</p><br>
<p>The Brammah massif lies south of Sickle Moon and is separated by a 12 kilometer glacier. The nearest Peaks are Brahma I 6,416 m, Flat Top 6,103 m, Brahma II 6,485 m, and Arjuna 6,230 m, listed in order from west to east.</p><br>
<h2>Mountaineering</h2><br>
<p>The east Kishtwar range of Brahma massif was first assessed by an Australian team in 1939. The eastern approaches of this Peak were explored by Fritz Kolb and his friends, the two Austrian mountaineers in 1947, from its base at Machail and climbed two small peeks. After a period of closure, the area</p><br>
<p>was again open to foreigners in the</p><br>
<p>early seventies, and there was a</p><br>
<p>rush to climb the obvious plums in</p><br>
<p>the western region. In 1973 British mountaineers Nick Escourt and Chris Bonington made an ascent of Brammah I (6416 m) and two years later in 1975 a team of Indian High Altitude Warfare School (HAWS) led by Lt. Col. D. N. Tankha made the first ascent of this Peak.</p><br>
<p>The massif is accessed by 145 kilometers by road from Srinagar up to Kishtwar town and then 50 kilometers alpine track leads to the base of the summit.</p><br>
<p>Miller&#39;s House at Spring Mill is a historic building in the Spring Mill section of Whitemarsh, Montgomery County, Pennsylvania, United States. Located about 200 feet  from where Spring Mill Creek empties into the Schuylkill River, it is about a quarter-mile  southeast of the Borough of Conshohocken.</p><br>
<p>The house was built about 1770, with an addition built about 1820. It has a 2½-story, three-bay, stuccoed gneiss-stone main section with a gable roof, and four-bay vernacular-stone addition. The Colonial-era house features vernacular Georgian-style architectural details. It was built as the residence for the miller / owner of the formerly-adjacent gristmill.</p><br>
<p>"Spring Mill" was in operation by 1704, and gave its name to the creek and the surrounding area. It stood on the opposite side of North Lane from the house, along Spring Mill Creek. It was destroyed by fire in 1967.</p><br>
<p>The house was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1989.</p><br>
<p>The current resident is, a bicycle and coffee shop.</p><br>
<p>Roberts and Mander Stove Company Buildings is a historic factory complex located at Hatboro, Montgomery County, Pennsylvania. The complex consists of six contributing buildings and one contributing structure. They are the Foundry Building , Main Manufacturing Building , Gate House , Transformer House , Smelter , Garage , and water tank. The buildings are 1 1/2-story, brick structures with flat roofs and large window openings. The Roberts and Mander Stove Company acquired the existing Hatboro Foundry buildings in 1918, and operated until 1950.</p><br>
<p>It was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 2005. A portion of the complex has been converted into apartment homes called the Hatboro Lofts. The water tank was torn down in November 2017.</p><br>
<p>Cold Point Historic District is a national historic district located in Plymouth Township and Whitemarsh Township, Montgomery County, Pennsylvania. It is an eastward extension of the Plymouth Meeting Historic District. It encompasses 62 contributing buildings and 1 contributing site dated from 1745 to 1878 in the Village of Cold Point. It includes predominantly 2 1/2-story, stuccoed rubble stone structures dated to the early- to mid-19th century. A few reflect the Greek Revival and Gothic Revival styles. Notable buildings include the separately listed Alan West Corson Homestead, Cold Point Baptist Church and burial ground, and Cold Point School.</p><br>
<p>It was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1983.</p><br>
<p>On the line adjoining Plymouth and Whitemarsh townships is an elevation known as Cold Point, where there is a scattered hamlet, containing on the Whitemarsh side more than a dozen houses. The Cold Point Baptist Church, located at this place, was first known as the Plymouth Church, and the locality became a preaching-place about 1842, when the Rev. Robert Young, then pastor of the Chestnut Hill Baptist Church, began service in the school-house, which then stood opposite the present church. The corner-stone of the old stone church edifice was laid in the summer of 1845, and after completion was in use until 1867. The corner-stone of the present stone house, sixty by forty feet, was laid in August of that year and completed and dedicated in 1868 and is still used. It stands a short distance west of the old church.</p><br>
<p>The membership is about one hundred and fifty. The grounds occupy about two and a half acres and are kept in neat condition. We find on the tombstones the names of Freas, Rodebaugh, Lysinger, Fight, Phipps, Hellings, Williams, White, Sands, Bisbing, Hallet, Rex, Coulson, Moore, Robinson, Fisher, Nagle, Schlater, Yetter, Butler, Kirk, Radcliff, Getman, Wood, Jones, Childs, Wimmer, Roberts, Heller, Gilbert and Dewees.</p><br>
<p>From these grounds a fine view is obtained of the surrounding country, particularly towards the north and west, embracing the greater portion of Plymouth township. Near this is the residence of the late Alan W. Corson, well known as a teacher, surveyor, nurseryman and botanist, who died June 21, 1882, aged ninety-five years. &mdash; History of Montgomery County (1884).</p><br>
<p>Plymouth Meeting Historic District is a national historic district that straddles Plymouth and Whitemarsh Townships in Montgomery County, Pennsylvania, United States. The adjacent Cold Point Historic District is north of it.</p><br>
<p>The district encompasses 200 acres (81 ha) and includes 56 contributing buildings in the historic core of Plymouth Meeting. Among these are the separately-listed Plymouth Friends Meetinghouse (1708); Hinterleiter House (1714); Livezey House and Store (1740&ndash;1788); Hovenden House, Barn and Abolition Hall (1795, 1856); and Plymouth Meeting Country Store and Post Office (1827).</p><br>
<p>The district was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1971.</p><br>
<p>Plymouth Meeting House is the name of a village situated at the intersection of the Plymouth and Perkiomen turnpikes, on the township line. On this side is the meeting house, school house and four houses; and in Whitemarsh two stores, a blacksmith and wheelwright shop, post office and twenty-four houses. The houses in this village are chiefly situated along the Perkiomen or Reading pike, nearly adjoining one another, and being of stone, neatly white washed, with shady yards in front, present to the stranger an agreeable appearance. In the basement of the Library building the Methodists hold worship. This is an ancient settlement, whose history dates back nearly to the arrival of William Penn, and is marked as a village on Lewis Evans&#39; map of 1749. The post office was established here before 1827. In 1832 there were but ten houses here. &mdash; History of Montgomery County (1858).</p><br>
<h2>Contributing properties (alphabetical by street)</h2><br>
<p>High Street Historic District is a national historic district located in Pottstown, Montgomery County, Pennsylvania. It encompasses 124 contributing buildings and 1 contributing structure in an upper- and middle-level residential section of Pottstown. The district includes late-19th and early-20th century mansions and stylish homes built between 1860 and 1941. They are in a variety of popular architectural styles including Queen Anne, American Foursquare, Victorian Gothic, Late Federal and Italianate. Notable non-residential buildings include a gas station , St. John&#39;s Reformed Church , St. James Evangelical Lutheran Church , and Pottstown Memorial Hospital . It includes the separately listed Grubb Mansion.</p><br>
<p>It was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1992.</p><br>
<p>Clinton Public Library is located in Clinton, Iowa, United States. The main library is located downtown and is listed on the National Register of Historic Places. The Lyons Branch is located on the north side of the city.</p><br>
<h2>Main Library</h2><br>
<p>The main library building was designed by the Chicago architectural firm of Patton & Miller and funded by Andrew Carnegie. The Beaux-Arts style building was constructed by Daniel Haring from 1903-1904. It is a two-story structure built on top of a raised basement. The exterior walls are composed of cut and dressed limestone. An addition was built in the rear of the original building and houses the main two-level stack area. A modern canopy was added over the entry at grade level to the basement. It was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1983.</p><br>
<p>Old Pottstown Historic District is a national historic district located in Pottstown, Montgomery County, Pennsylvania. It encompasses 956 contributing buildings and 1 contributing site in the central business district and surrounding residential areas of Pottstown. The district includes a variety of residential buildings including workers&#39; home and residences of prominent and wealthy citizens in a variety of architectural styles including Late Victorian, Gothic Revival, and Federal. This includes the separately listed Pottsgrove Mansion. Notable non-residential buildings include the Italianate style commercial buildings on High Street, 1725 Roller Mills, Reading Railroad station , Doehler-Jarvis castings plant, Light Foundry building , Ecker Building , Weitzenkorn Building, Security Trust Building , Elks Home , Pottstown Library , Pottstown Borough Hall , Masonic Temple , Christ Episcopal Church , First Methodist Church , and St. Aloysius Roman Catholic Church . Also in the district is the Searles Memorial Methodist Church  designed by noted architect Joseph Miller Huston .</p><br>
<p>It was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1985, with a boundary increase in 1991.</p><br>
<p>The Pine Valley Mountains are a mountain range in the USA state of Utah spanning Washington County north of the city of St. George. The highest point in the range is Signal Peak at 10,365 ft. The mountains are part of Dixie National Forest and are bordered to the south by the Red Cliffs National Conservation Area.</p><br>
<h2>Geology</h2><br>
<p>The Pine Valley Mountains formed from the Pine Valley Laccolith, which is the largest laccolith in the United States and perhaps the largest laccolith in the world. The laccolith was formed during a 20 million-year period of volcanic activity. After 4-5,000 feet of volcanics had been deposited on top of the Claron Formation, the magma vents were effectively sealed off. A final surge of magma, unable to find its way to the surface, instead pushed sideways along the weak seam between the Claron and the overlying volcanic layers. Thus was injected a 3,000 foot-thick layer of monzonite porphyry to form the Pine Valley laccolith. The contact between the top of the Claron and the bottom of the laccolith can be seen in several locations, most notably near the headwaters of Cottonwood Creek along the southwest corner of the mountain range (see photo below in the gallery), and at the headwaters of Leap Creek north of the Browse Guard Station.</p><br>
<p>After erosion exposed the laccolith, volcanic activity continued and the youngest flows are 1-1.6 million years old. Many volcanic cinder cones can still be seen in the foothills of the Pine Valley Mountains and these have been dated at around 20,000 years old. As a result of these lava flows, the valley for which the mountain range is named and in which the town of Pine Valley is situated, was formed when lava dammed off the Santa Clara River and formed a lake. Sediments eventually filled the lake until they reached the height of the lava dam. These sediments form the floor of the present day Pine Valley, Grass Valley, and Grassy Flat.</p><br>
<p>The mountains straddle the divide between the Great Basin watershed and the watershed of the Virgin River, a tributary of the Colorado River. The Chinamen&#39;s Canal tunnel at the north end of Grass Valley diverts the waters of Mill Canyon Creek from the Colorado River drainage system into the Great Basin drainage system, eventually finding its way into the Newcastle Reservoir via Pinto Creek.Zion National Park can be seen to the east from the mountains.</p><br>
<h2>Wilderness</h2><br>
<p>Part of the range is in the Pine Valley Mountain Wilderness, which at 50,232 acre is the fourth largest wilderness in Utah. The 2,643 acre Cottonwood Forest Wilderness is located at the southeastern end of the range.</p><br>
<h2>Flora and fauna</h2><br>
<p>The Pine Valley Mountains support spruce-fir forests, including a large stand of virgin Engelmann spruce. The mountains also have numerous meadows up to 50 acre in size. Several threatened, endangered, and sensitive species live in the mountains, including Bonneville cutthroat trout, Townsend&#39;s big-eared bat, and the pygmy rabbit, among others.</p><br>
<p>Botanically speaking, Pine Valley Mountain is the most diverse mountain range in Utah. A floristic survey was conducted between 1985 and 1987 and 967 species were collected. Since then, additional species have been added bringing the total to nearly 1,000. Three species new to Utah were identified including bitter cherry (Prunus emarginata (Dougl.) Walpers), common sandweed (Athysanus pusillus (Hook.) Greene), and Lemmon’s onion (Allium lemmonii S. Wats.).</p><br>
<p>Nineteen ferns and fern allies are present, 18 gymnosperms (conifers and Mormon teas), 150 species of monocots (including 86 grasses, 10 orchids, and 2 agaves, among others), with the remainder being dicots.</p><br>
<p>The three largest families represented in the flora of Pine Valley Mountain include the Asteraceae with 160 species, Poaceae with 85 species, and Fabaceae with 63. The three largest genera and number of species collected are Eriogonum, 23, Cryptantha, 20, and Astragalus, 20.</p><br>
<p>Some of the more interesting finds include:</p><br>
<p>Forked spleenwort (Asplenium septentrionale (L.) Hoffm.), a small grass-like fern found at a single high-elevation location north of Mill Flat.</p><br>
<p>Grape fern (Botrychium) found in the high meadows.</p><br>
<p>Young bristlecone pines (Pinus longaeva D.K. Bailey) are found along the very crest of the mountain especially near the summit of the Oak Grove trail and westward.</p><br>
<p>Sequoia tree (Sequoiadendron giganteum (Lindl.) Buchholz). A single tree planted behind the Browse guard station is almost four feet in diameter.</p><br>
<p>Pistachios have escaped cultivation from old plantings near Leeds and Harrisburg. Interestingly, the rootstocks for those orchards were the Mount Atlas pistachio (Pistacia atlantica Desf.) while the upper portions of the trees were the edible pistachio (Pistacia vera L.). Some of the tops have died and trees have resprouted from the rootstocks and produced viable seeds. Birds have helped move them into the southern foothills of Pine Valley Mountain where they have become naturalized, often growing as bonsai trees out of cracks in rocks and cliffs.</p><br>
<p>Dollarjoint cactus (Opuntia chlorotica Engelm. & Bigel.) scattered along the southern foothills.</p><br>
<p>A yellow-flowered population of Bridges penstemon (Penstemon rostriflorus Kellogg), along the south fork of Pinto Creek.</p><br>
<p>Three species of orchids in the genus Corallorhiza.</p><br>
<p>Pine Valley goldenbush (Ericameria crispus (L.C. Anderson) G.L. Nesom), with its peculiar crinkled leaves, is only found in the Pine Valley Mountains, most commonly along the Whipple Trail in Hop Canyon.</p><br>
<p>Utah spikemoss (Selaginella utahensis Flowers) has an extremely limited distribution in southwestern Utah and one location in Nevada, but is locally common on Pine Valley Mountain wherever a shady spot and Navajo sandstone can be found together.</p><br>
<p>All but one of Utah’s conifers grow in the Pine Valley Mountains. Only the lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta Douglas) is missing.</p><br>
<h2>Recreation</h2><br>
<p>There are numerous opportunities for recreation in the mountains, including hiking, rock climbing, camping, wildlife watching, fishing, hunting, horseback riding, and boating on a reservoir.</p><br>
<h2>Peaks</h2><br>
